Plasmodial surface anion channel inhibitors for the treatment or prevention of malaria

ABSTRACT

The invention provides methods of treating or preventing malaria comprising administering to an animal an effective amount of a compound of formula I: 
       Q-Y—R 1 —R 2   (I),
 
     wherein Q, Y, R 1 , and R 2  are as described herein. Methods of inhibiting a plasmodial surface anion channel of a parasite in an animal are also provided. The invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound represented by formula I in combination with any one or more compounds represented by formulas II, V, and VI. Use of the pharmaceutical compositions for treating or preventing malaria or for inhibiting a plasmodial surface anion channel in animals including humans are also provided. Also provided by the invention are clag3 amino acid sequences and related nucleic acids, vectors, host cells, populations of cells, antibodies, and pharmaceutical compositions.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This patent application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/474,583, filed Apr. 12, 2011, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein.

INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF MATERIAL SUBMITTED ELECTRONICALLY

Incorporated by reference in its entirety herein is a computer-readable nucleotide/amino acid sequence listing submitted concurrently herewith and identified as follows: One 84,990 Byte ASCII (Text) file named “709937ST25.txt,” dated Mar. 6, 2012.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Malaria, one of the world's most important infectious diseases, is transmitted by mosquitoes and is caused by four species of Plasmodium parasites (P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae). Symptoms include fever, chills, headache, muscle aches, tiredness, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, anemia, and jaundice. Convulsions, coma, severe anemia and kidney failure can also occur. It remains a leading cause of death globally, especially amongst African children under 5 years of age. While repeated infections over many years leads to partial immunity in endemic areas, these adults still suffer significant morbidity and loss of productivity. The annual economic loss in Africa due to malaria is estimated at US $12 billion.

There is no effective vaccine currently available for malaria. Treatment has therefore relied primarily on antimalarial drugs such as chloroquine. Because some malaria parasites have acquired resistance to each available antimalarial drug, there is a desire to discover and develop new antimalarials.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides methods of treating or preventing malaria comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of formula I to an animal. Methods of inhibiting a plasmodial surface anion channel of a parasite in an animal are also provided. The invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound represented by formula I in combination with one or more antimalarial compounds, e.g., those represented by formulas II, V, and VI. Use of the pharmaceutical compositions for treating or preventing malaria or for inhibiting a plasmodial surface anion channel in animals including humans are also provided. It is contemplated that the inventive compounds and/or pharmaceutical compositions inhibit a plasmodial surface anion channel and/or treat or prevent malaria by any number of mechanisms, for example, by inhibiting one or members of the parasite clag3 gene family. Embodiments of the inventive compounds have one or more advantages including, but not limited to: high affinity for the ion channel, high specificity for the ion channel, no or low cytoxicity, a chemical structure that is different from existing antimalarials, and drug-like features.

Also provided by the invention are clag3 amino acid sequences and related nucleic acids, vectors, host cells, populations of cells, antibodies, and pharmaceutical compositions. The invention also provides methods of treating or preventing malaria in an animal and methods of stimulating an immune response against a plasmodial surface anion channel of a parasite in an animal comprising administering to the animal an effective amount of the inventive clag3 amino acid sequences and related nucleic acids, vectors, host cells, populations of cells, antibodies, and pharmaceutical compositions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a graph showing sorbitol-induced osmotic lysis kinetics (% lysis) for the allelic exchange clone HB3^(3rec) with indicated concentration of ISPA-28 (μM), a compound in accordance with an embodiment of the invention (see Formula A, paragraph below), over time (minutes).

FIG. 2 is a graph showing mean±S.E.M. ISPA-28 dose (μM)-response (normalized P) for HB3^(3rec) (circles). This dose response is intermediate between those of HB3 and Dd2 (top and bottom solid lines, respectively).

FIG. 3A is a graph showing % survival of Dd2 (open triangles) or HB3 (filled circles) in PLM medium as a function of ISPA-28 concentration (μM). Solid lines represent the best fits to a two-component exponential decay.

FIG. 3B is a graph showing mean±SEM % parasite growth inhibition by 3 ISPA-28 for indicated parental lines and progeny clones.

FIG. 4A is a graph showing mean±SEM ISPA-28 dose responses for PSAC inhibition before (B) and after transport selection of the 7C20 line (C) followed by PLM growth selection (A).

FIG. 4B is a graph showing expression ratio for the two clag3 alleles clag3.1 and clag3.2 before (unselected) and after (transport) selection of the 7C20 line followed by PLM growth selection (growth). Bars represent mean±SEM of replicates from 2-4 separate trials each.

FIG. 5A is a graph showing ISPA-28 dose response for PSAC inhibition in the Dd2-PLM28 line (black circles, mean±SEM of up to 5 measurements each). Solid lines reflect the dose responses for clag3.1 and clag3.2 expression in 7C20 (bottom and top lines, respectively).

FIG. 5B is a graph showing the ratio quantifying relative expression of clag3 and the chimeric gene in Dd2-PLM28 before and after transport-based selection for clag3.1 using ISPA-28 (PLM28-rev) presented on a log scale.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

During its approximately 48 h cycle within the human red blood cell (RBC), P. falciparum must increase the red blood cell's (RBC's) permeability to a broad range of solutes. Electrophysiological studies identified the plasmodial surface anion channel (PSAC) as the molecular mechanism of these changes. PSAC's functional properties differ from those of known human ion channels. These properties include atypical gating, unique pharmacology, and an unmatched selectivity profile. An unusual property is PSAC's ability to exclude Na⁺ by more than 100,000-fold relative to Cl⁻ despite the channel's broad permeability to anions and bulky nutrients. This level of exclusion of a single small solute has not been reported in other broadly selective channels; it is essential for parasite survival because a higher Na⁺ permeability would produce osmotic lysis of infected RBCs in the high Na⁺ serum.

PSAC plays a central role in parasite nutrient acquisition. Sugars, amino acids, purines, vitamins, and precursors for phospholipid biosynthesis have markedly increased uptake into infected RBCs via PSAC. Many of these solutes have negligible permeability in uninfected RBCs and must be provided exogenously to sustain in vitro parasite growth. PSAC is conserved on divergent plasmodial species, as determined through studies of erythrocytes infected with rodent, avian, and primate malaria parasites. The channel's gating, voltage dependence, selectivity, and pharmacology are all conserved, suggesting that PSAC is a highly constrained integral membrane protein. Its surface location on the erythrocyte membrane offers conceptual advantages over parasite targets buried inside the infected RBC. PSAC's exposed location on infected RBCs forces direct access to antagonists in serum and excludes resistance via drug extrusion. In contrast, drugs acting within the parasite compartment must cross at least three membranous barriers to reach their target; clinical resistance to chloroquine and mefloquine appear to be linked to extrusion from their sites of action. Nearly all available PSAC antagonists inhibit in vitro parasite growth at concentrations modestly higher than those required for channel inhibition.

PSAC-inhibitor interactions may be determined by members of the clag3 plasmodia gene family. Clag3.1 (also known as RhopH1 (3.1) and PFC0120w) and clag3.2 (also known as RhopH1 (3.2) and PFC0110w) are members of the clag multigene family conserved in P. falciparum and P. vivax. Clag3.1 and clag3.2 are located on P. falciparum chromosome 3. The clag3.1 gene sequence is referenced by Genbank Accession Nos. 124504714 and XM_001351064 (SEQ ID NO: 1). SEQ ID NO: 1 sets forth the mRNA sequence of the clag3.1 gene without the untranslated regions. The sequence of the protein product of the clag3.1 gene (known as cytoadherence linked asexual protein 3.1) is referenced by Genbank Accession Nos. XP_001351100 and CAB10572.2 (SEQ ID NO: 2). The clag3.2 gene sequence is referenced by Genbank Accession Nos. 124504712 and XM_001351063 (SEQ ID NO: 3). SEQ ID NO: 3 sets forth the mRNA sequence of the clag3.2 gene without the untranslated regions. The sequence of the protein product of the clag 3.2 gene (known as cytoadherence linked asexual protein 3.2) is referenced by Genbank Accession Nos. XP_001351099 and 124504713 (SEQ ID NO: 4). Based on available evidence, clag3.1 and clag3.2 encode the parasite PSAC.

The invention also provides a chimeric clag3.1/clag3.2 gene. SEQ ID NO: 79 sets forth the mRNA sequence of the chimeric clag3.1/clag3.2 gene without the untranslated regions, and SEQ ID NO: 78 sets forth the protein product of the chimeric clag3.1/clag3.2 gene. Amino acid residues 1-1011 of SEQ ID NO: 78 correspond to amino acid residues 1-1011 of the clag3.1 protein SEQ ID NO: 2. Amino acid residues 1012-1417 of SEQ ID NO: 78 correspond to amino acid residues 1014-1416 of the clag3.2 protein SEQ ID NO: 4. Based on available evidence, the chimeric clag3.1/clag3.2 gene encodes a parasite PSAC.

Accordingly, the invention provides, in an embodiment, a method of treating or preventing malaria in an animal comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of formula (I) to the animal, preferably a human:

Q-Y—R¹—R²  (I),

wherein:

Q is selected from the group consisting of a dioxo heterocyclyl ring fused to an aryl group, a heterocyclic amido group linked to a heterocyclic group, alkyl, a heterocyclic group fused to a heterocyclic amido group, arylamino carbonyl, amino, heterocyclic amido, and heterocyclic amino group, each of which, other than amino, is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aryl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl;

Y is a bond, S, SO₂, or amido;

R¹ is divalent group selected from the group consisting of a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, aryl, a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom linked to an alkylamino group, benzo fused heterocyclyl, heterocyclyl fused to an iminotetrahydropyrimidino group, and heterocyclyl fused to a heterocyclic amido group, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl;

R² is selected from the group consisting of arylalkenyl, heterocyclyl carbonylamino, heterocyclyl alkylamino, tetrahydroquinolinyl alkenyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl alkyl, indolylalkenyl, dihydroindolylalkenyl, aryl, aryloxyalkyl, arylalkyl, diazolyl, and quinolinylalkenyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl;

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Another embodiment of the invention provides a method of inhibiting a plasmodial surface anion channel of a parasite in an animal comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of formula (I) to the animal, preferably a human:

Q-Y—R¹—R²  (I),

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein Q, Y, R¹, and R² are as defined above.

Still another embodiment of the invention provides a compound of formula (I):

Q-Y—R¹—R²  (I),

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein Q, Y, R¹, and R² are as defined above;

for use in treating or preventing malaria in an animal, preferably a human.

Yet another embodiment of the invention provides a compound of formula (I):

Q-Y—R¹—R²  (I),

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein Q, Y, R¹, and R² are as defined above;

for use in inhibiting a plasmodial surface anion channel of a parasite in an animal, preferably a human.

Still another embodiment of the invention provides a use of a compound of formula (I):

Q-Y—R¹—R²  (I),

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein Q, Y, R¹, and R² are as defined above;

in the manufacture of a medicament for treating or preventing malaria in an animal, preferably a human.

Yet another embodiment of the invention provides a use of a compound of formula (I):

Q-Y—R¹—R²  (I),

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein Q, Y, R¹, and R² are as defined above;

in the manufacture of a medicament for inhibiting a plasmodial surface anion channel of a parasite in an animal, preferably a human.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, Q in formula I is selected from the group consisting of dioxotetrahydroquinoxalinyl, pyridazinyl heterocyclyl, alkyl, heterocyclyl pyridazinyl, and arylaminocarbonylalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, R¹ in formula I is selected from the group consisting of piperidinyl, piperazinyl, piperidinylalkylamino, benzothiazolyl, thiozolyl fused to an imino tetrahydropyrimidino group, and thiazolyl fused to a pyridazone, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, R² in formula I is selected from the group consisting of alkyl arylalkenyl, thiopheneylcarbonylamino, tetrahydro quinolinyl alkenyl, tetrahydro isoquinolinylalkyl, alkoxyaryl, aryl, aryloxyalkyl, and arylalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, Y in formula I is SO₂. For example, Q in formula I is selected from the group consisting of (point of attachment is represented by a wiggly line here and elsewhere in the application):

methyl, and isobutyl. In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, R¹ in formula I is selected from the group consisting of:

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, R² is selected from the group consisting of:

In accordance with any of the embodiments above, the compound of formula I is:

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, Y in formula I is S. For example, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention, Q in formula I is selected from

the group consisting of:

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, R¹ in formula I is selected from the group consisting of:

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, R² in formula I is selected from the group consisting of:

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the compound of formula I is:

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, Y of formula I is a bond. For example, in an embodiment of the invention, the compound of formula I is:

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, Y of formula (I) is amido. In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, Q is heterocyclic amido, R₁ is a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom, and R₂ is diazolyl. For example, in an embodiment of the invention, the compound of formula I is:

In an embodiment of the invention, the compound inhibits growth of P. falciparum Dd2.

Another embodiment of the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising:

i) a compound of formula (I):

Q-Y—R¹—R²  (I),

wherein:

Q is selected from the group consisting of a dioxo heterocyclyl ring fused to an aryl group, a heterocyclic amido group linked to a heterocyclic group, alkyl, a heterocyclic group fused to a heterocyclic amido group, arylamino carbonyl, amino, heteroyclic amido, and heterocyclic amino group, each of which, other than amino, is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aryl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl;

Y is a bond, S, SO₂, or amido;

R¹ is divalent group selected from the group consisting of a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, aryl, a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom linked to an alkylamino group, benzo fused heterocyclyl, heterocyclyl fused to an iminotetrahydropyrimidino group, and heterocyclyl fused to a heterocyclic amido group, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl;

R² is selected from the group consisting of arylalkenyl, heterocyclyl carbonylamino, heterocyclyl alkylamino, tetrahydroquinolinyl alkenyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl alkyl, indolylalkenyl, dihydroindolylalkenyl, aryl, aryloxyalkyl, arylalkyl, diazolyl, and quinolinylalkenyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl;

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; and

ii) at least one other antimalarial compound.

The antimalarial compound may be any suitable antimalarial compound and may act by any mechanism and may, for example, inhibit a PSAC at any site. In an embodiment of the invention, the antimalarial compound is artemisinin, mefloquine, chloroquine, or derivatives thereof.

In an embodiment of the invention, the at least one other antimalarial compound is one or more compounds selected from the group consisting of:

-   -   a) a compound of formula II:

wherein R¹⁰⁰ is hydrogen or alkyl and R²⁰⁰ is arylalkyl, optionally substituted on the aryl with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; or R²⁰⁰ is a group of formula (III):

wherein n=0 to 6;

or R¹⁰⁰ and R²⁰⁰ together with the N to which they are attached form a heterocycle of formula IV:

wherein X is N or CH; and

Y₁ is aryl, alkylaryl, dialkylaryl, arylalkyl, alkoxyaryl, or heterocyclic, optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; and

R³-R¹⁰ are hydrogen or alkyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof;

-   -   (b) a compound of formula V:

-   -   wherein

Z is a group having one or more 4-7 membered rings, wherein at least one of the rings has at least one heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N; and when two or more 4-7 membered rings are present, the rings may be fused or unfused; wherein the rings are optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl;

R^(a) is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkoxy;

L is a bond, alkyl, alkoxy, (CH₂)_(r), or (CH₂O)_(s), wherein r and s are independently 1 to 6;

Q₁ is a heterocyclic group, an aryl group, or an heterocyclyl aryl group, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; and

when L is alkyl or alkoxy, Q₁ is absent;

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; and

-   -   (c) a compound of formula VI:

wherein R¹¹ and R¹² are independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, or aryl which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, halo, hydroxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl;

R¹³-R¹⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of alkyl, halo, alkoxy, hydroxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl;

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In this regard, in an embodiment of the invention, the pharmaceutical composition comprises at least one compound of formula I in combination with one or more compounds disclosed in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2011/0144086, which is a U.S. national stage application of PCT/US09/50637, filed on Jul. 15, 2009, and which published as WO 2010/011537, each of which are incorporated herein by reference.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, the pharmaceutical composition comprises a compound of formula I and any one or more of

Another embodiment of the invention provides a method of treating or preventing malaria in an animal comprising administering to the animal an effective amount of a compound of formula I and at least one other antimalarial compound. In an embodiment, the at least one other antimalarial compound is one or more compound(s) selected from the group consisting of a compound of formula II, a compound of formula V, and a compound of formula VI.

Still another embodiment of the invention provides a method of inhibiting a plasmodial surface anion channel of a parasite in an animal comprising administering to the animal an effective amount of a compound of formula I and one or more compound(s) selected from the group consisting of a compound of formula II, a compound of formula V, and a compound of formula VI.

Referring now to terminology used generically herein, the term “alkyl” implies a straight or branched alkyl moiety containing from, for example, 1 to 12 carbon atoms, preferably from 1 to 8 carbon atoms, more preferably from 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Examples of such moieties include methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, sec-butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, isoamyl, hexyl, octyl, dodecanyl, and the like.

The term “aryl” refers to an unsubstituted or substituted aromatic carbocyclic moiety, as commonly understood in the art, and includes monocyclic and polycyclic aromatics such as, for example, phenyl, biphenyl, naphthyl, anthracenyl, pyrenyl, and the like. An aryl moiety generally contains from, for example, 6 to 30 carbon atoms, preferably from 6 to 18 carbon atoms, more preferably from 6 to 14 carbon atoms and most preferably from 6 to 10 carbon atoms. It is understood that the term aryl includes carbocyclic moieties that are planar and comprise 4n+2π electrons, according to Hickel's Rule, wherein n=1, 2, or 3.

The term “heterocyclic” means a cyclic moiety having one or more heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, sulfur, and/or oxygen. Preferably, a heterocyclic is a 5 or 6-membered monocyclic ring and contains one, two, or three heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and/or sulfur. Examples of such heterocyclic rings are pyrrolinyl, pyranyl, piperidyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiopheneyl, and morpholinyl.

The term “alkoxy” embraces linear or branched alkyl groups that are attached to a an ether oxygen. The alkyl group is the same as described herein. Examples of such substituents include methoxy, ethoxy, t-butoxy, and the like.

The term “halo” as used herein, means a substituent selected from Group VIIA, such as, for example, fluorine, bromine, chlorine, and iodine.

For the purpose of the present invention, the term “fused” includes a polycyclic compound in which one ring contains one or more atoms preferably one, two, or three atoms in common with one or more other rings.

Whenever a range of the number of atoms in a structure is indicated (e.g., a C₁₋₁₂, C₁₋₈, C₁₋₆, or C₁₋₄ alkyl, alkylamino, etc.), it is specifically contemplated that any sub-range or individual number of carbon atoms falling within the indicated range also can be used. Thus, for instance, the recitation of a range of 1-8 carbon atoms (e.g., C₁-C₈), 1-6 carbon atoms (e.g., C₁-C₆), 1-4 carbon atoms (e.g., C₁-C₄), 1-3 carbon atoms (e.g., C₁-C₃), or 2-8 carbon atoms (e.g., C₂-C₈) as used with respect to any chemical group (e.g., alkyl, alkylamino, etc.) referenced herein encompasses and specifically describes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and/or 12 carbon atoms, as appropriate, as well as any sub-range thereof (e.g., 1-2 carbon atoms, 1-3 carbon atoms, 1-4 carbon atoms, 1-5 carbon atoms, 1-6 carbon atoms, 1-7 carbon atoms, 1-8 carbon atoms, 1-9 carbon atoms, 1-10 carbon atoms, 1-11 carbon atoms, 1-12 carbon atoms, 2-3 carbon atoms, 2-4 carbon atoms, 2-5 carbon atoms, 2-6 carbon atoms, 2-7 carbon atoms, 2-8 carbon atoms, 2-9 carbon atoms, 2-10 carbon atoms, 2-11 carbon atoms, 2-12 carbon atoms, 3-4 carbon atoms, 3-5 carbon atoms, 3-6 carbon atoms, 3-7 carbon atoms, 3-8 carbon atoms, 3-9 carbon atoms, 3-10 carbon atoms, 3-11 carbon atoms, 3-12 carbon atoms, 4-5 carbon atoms, 4-6 carbon atoms, 4-7 carbon atoms, 4-8 carbon atoms, 4-9 carbon atoms, 4-10 carbon atoms, 4-11 carbon atoms, and/or 4-12 carbon atoms, etc., as appropriate).

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, R³ in formula II is hydrogen. In accordance with the above embodiments, R⁴-R⁷ in formula II are hydrogen. In an example, R¹⁰⁰ in formula II is hydrogen and R²⁰⁰ is a group of formula III, wherein n=1 to 6, preferably n=2 to 4.

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, wherein R¹⁰⁰ and R²⁰⁰ together with the N to which they are attached form a heterocycle of formula IV. For example, X in formula IV is N. In accordance with the invention, in formula IV, Y₁ is aryl which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, alkoxy, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl. For example, in formula IV, Y₁ is phenyl, which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, alkoxy, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl, specifically, Y₁ is phenyl or phenyl substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of methyl, chloro, fluoro, and methoxy.

In accordance with any of the embodiments above, the compound of formula II is:

In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, X in formula IV is CH. In a particular embodiment, Y₁ is arylalkyl or heterocyclic, which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl. Illustratively, Y₁ is benzyl or piperidinyl, which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl. Examples of specific compounds of formula II are:

In another embodiment of the invention, R¹⁰⁰ in formula II is hydrogen and R²⁰⁰ is arylalkyl, optionally substituted on the aryl with a substituent selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, and formyl. As an example, R²⁰⁰ is arylalkyl, e.g., phenylalkyl such as phenyl butyl. A specific example of such a compound of formula II is:

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, a specific example of a compound of formula III is:

In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, in the compound of formula V, L is a bond or (CH₂O)_(s), and Q₁ is a heterocyclic group, an aryl group, or an heterocyclyl aryl group, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl.

In accordance with an embodiment, wherein Z is a group having one or more 4-7 membered rings, wherein at least one of the rings has at least one heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N; and when two or more 4-7 membered rings are present, they may be fused or unfused; wherein the rings are optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl.

In the above embodiment, Z is a group having one or two 4-7 membered rings, wherein at least one of the rings has at least one heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N; and when two 4-7 membered rings are present, they may be fused or unfused; wherein the rings are optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl.

In a specific embodiment of the formula V, Q₁ is an aryl group, optionally substituted with an alkoxy group or Q₁ is a heterocyclic group which is saturated or unsaturated. For example, Q₁ is aryl such as phenyl or naphthyl.

Examples of compounds of formula IV are:

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, in the compound of formula V, Q₁ is a heteroaromatic group, e.g., pyridyl. An example of such a compound is:

In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, in the compound of formula V, L is an alkyl group and Q₁ is absent. Examples of such compounds are:

In accordance with another embodiment of the invention, in the compound of formula VI, R¹³ is alkyl or alkoxy and R¹⁴ and R¹⁵ are hydrogen. In a particular embodiment, R¹³ is methyl or methoxy.

In the above embodiments of the compound of formula VI, specifically, R¹¹ is alkyl and R¹² is alkyl, cycloalkyl, or aryl, wherein said aryl is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, halo, hydroxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl. In a particular embodiment, R¹² is alkyl, cycloalkyl, or aryl, wherein said aryl is optionally substituted with one or more alkyl and/or alkoxy substituents.

Examples of compounds of formula VI are:

In accordance with an embodiment of the invention, in compound of formula VI, R¹¹ is hydrogen and R¹² is cycloalkyl or aryl, which is optionally substituted with one or more alkyl and/or alkoxy substituents. Exemplary compounds of formula VI are:

In accordance with the invention, an effective amount of a compound of formula I is administered in combination with any one or more compound(s) of formulas II, V, and VI, for example, a combination of compounds of formulas I and II, compounds of formulas I and V, compounds of formulas I and VI, compounds of formulas I, II and V, compounds of formulas I, II and VI, compounds of formulas I, V and VI, or compounds of formulas I, II, V, and VI, or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, is administered. It is contemplated that such combinations provide synergy—enhanced killing of the parasite, when a combination of two or more compounds are employed. The extent of killing is greater than the sum of the individual killings.

The compounds of the invention can be prepared by suitable methods as would be known to those skilled in the art or obtained from commercial sources such as ChemDiv Inc., San Diego, Calif. or Peakdale Molecular Limited, High Peak, England. See also WO 00/27851 and U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,602,865 and 2,895,956.

Another embodiment of the invention provides a clag3 amino acid sequence comprising, consisting of, or consisting essentially of SEQ ID NO: 62, 64, 66, 72, 74, or 76, with the proviso that the amino acid sequence is not SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, or 78. SEQ ID NOs: 62, 64, 66, 74, and 76 correspond to amino acid residues 1063-1208, 1232-1417, 25-332, 488-907, and 925-1044 of the clag3.1 protein of the 3D7 parasite line. SEQ ID NO: 72 corresponds to amino acid residues 1063-1244 of the clag3.1 protein of the Dd2 parasite line. SEQ ID NOs: 62, 64, 66, 72, 74, and 76 are encoded by nucleotide sequence SEQ ID NOs: 63, 65, 67, 73, 75, and 77, respectively.

In this regard, an embodiment of the invention provides a clag3 amino acid sequence comprising, consisting of, or consisting essentially of SEQ ID NO: 62, 64, 66, 72, 74, or 76, with the proviso that the amino acid sequence is not SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, or 78.

Another embodiment of the invention provides a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the inventive amino acid sequences, with the proviso that the nucleotide sequence is not SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, or 79. For example, the nucleotide sequence comprises, consists, or consists essentially of SEQ ID NO: 63, 65, 67, 73, 75, or 77.

Further embodiments of the invention provide a recombinant expression vector comprising an inventive nucleic acid, an isolated host cell comprising the inventive recombinant expression vector, a population of cells comprising the inventive host cell, and an antibody, or antigen binding portion thereof, which specifically binds to an inventive amino acid sequence. The inventive amino acid sequence, nucleic acid, recombinant expression vector, host cell, population of cells, and/or antibody, or antigen binding portion thereof may be isolated or purified.

Still another embodiment of the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising the inventive amino acid sequence, nucleic acid, recombinant expression vector, host cell, population of cells, and/or antibody, or antigen binding portion thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

Yet another embodiment of the invention provides a method of treating or preventing malaria in an animal comprising administering to the animal an effective amount of the inventive amino acid sequence, nucleic acid, recombinant expression vector, host cell, population of cells, antibody, or antigen binding portion thereof, and/or pharmaceutical composition.

Yet another embodiment of the invention provides a method of stimulating an immune response against a plasmodial surface anion channel of a parasite in an animal comprising administering to the animal an effective amount of the inventive amino acid sequence, nucleic acid, recombinant expression vector, host cell, population of cells, antibody, or antigen binding portion thereof, and/or pharmaceutical composition. In an embodiment, stimulating an immune response comprises stimulating the production of antibodies that specifically bind to the plasmodial surface anion channel.

The pharmaceutically acceptable carriers described herein, for example, vehicles, adjuvants, excipients, or diluents, are well known to those who are skilled in the art and are readily available to the public. It is preferred that the pharmaceutically acceptable carrier be one which is chemically inert to the active compounds and one which has no detrimental side effects or toxicity under the conditions of use.

The choice of carrier will be determined in part by the particular active agent, as well as by the particular method used to administer the composition. Accordingly, there is a wide variety of suitable formulations of the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention. The following formulations for oral, aerosol, parenteral, subcutaneous, intravenous, intraarterial, intramuscular, interperitoneal, intrathecal, rectal, and vaginal administration are merely exemplary and are in no way limiting.

Formulations suitable for oral administration can consist of (a) liquid solutions, such as an effective amount of the compound dissolved in diluents, such as water, saline, or orange juice; (b) capsules, sachets, tablets, lozenges, and troches, each containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient, as solids or granules; (c) powders; (d) suspensions in an appropriate liquid; and (e) suitable emulsions. Liquid formulations may include diluents, such as water and alcohols, for example, ethanol, benzyl alcohol, and the polyethylene alcohols, either with or without the addition of a pharmaceutically acceptable surfactant, suspending agent, or emulsifying agent. Capsule forms can be of the ordinary hard- or soft-shelled gelatin type containing, for example, surfactants, lubricants, and inert fillers, such as lactose, sucrose, calcium phosphate, and cornstarch. Tablet forms can include one or more of lactose, sucrose, mannitol, corn starch, potato starch, alginic acid, microcrystalline cellulose, acacia, gelatin, guar gum, colloidal silicon dioxide, croscarmellose sodium, talc, magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, zinc stearate, stearic acid, and other excipients, colorants, diluents, buffering agents, disintegrating agents, moistening agents, preservatives, flavoring agents, and pharmacologically compatible carriers. Lozenge forms can comprise the active ingredient in a flavor, usually sucrose and acacia or tragacanth, as well as pastilles comprising the active ingredient in an inert base, such as gelatin and glycerin, or sucrose and acacia, emulsions, gels, and the like containing, in addition to the active ingredient, such carriers as are known in the art.

The compounds of the present invention, alone or in combination with other suitable components, can be made into aerosol formulations to be administered via inhalation. These aerosol formulations can be placed into pressurized acceptable propellants, such as dichlorodifluoromethane, propane, nitrogen, and the like. They also may be formulated as pharmaceuticals for non-pressured preparations, such as in a nebulizer or an atomizer.

Formulations suitable for parenteral administration include aqueous and non-aqueous, isotonic sterile injection solutions, which can contain anti-oxidants, buffers, bacteriostats, and solutes that render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient, and aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions that can include suspending agents, solubilizers, thickening agents, stabilizers, and preservatives. The compound can be administered in a physiologically acceptable diluent in a pharmaceutical carrier, such as a sterile liquid or mixture of liquids, including water, saline, aqueous dextrose and related sugar solutions, an alcohol, such as ethanol, isopropanol, or hexadecyl alcohol, glycols, such as propylene glycol or polyethylene glycol, glycerol ketals, such as 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolane-4-methanol, ethers, such as poly(ethyleneglycol) 400, an oil, a fatty acid, a fatty acid ester or glyceride, or an acetylated fatty acid glyceride with or without the addition of a pharmaceutically acceptable surfactant, such as a soap or a detergent, suspending agent, such as pectin, carbomers, methylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, or carboxymethylcellulose, or emulsifying agents and other pharmaceutical adjuvants.

Oils, which can be used in parenteral formulations include petroleum, animal, vegetable, or synthetic oils. Specific examples of oils include peanut, soybean, sesame, cottonseed, corn, olive, petrolatum, and mineral. Suitable fatty acids for use in parenteral formulations include oleic acid, stearic acid, and isostearic acid. Ethyl oleate and isopropyl myristate are examples of suitable fatty acid esters. Suitable soaps for use in parenteral formulations include fatty alkali metal, ammonium, and triethanolamine salts, and suitable detergents include (a) cationic detergents such as, for example, dimethyl dialkyl ammonium halides, and alkyl pyridinium halides, (b) anionic detergents such as, for example, alkyl, aryl, and olefi sulfonates, alkyl, olefi, ether, and monoglyceride sulfates, and sulfosuccinates, (c) nonionic detergents such as, for example, fatty amine oxides, fatty acid alkanolamides, and polyoxyethylene-polypropylene copolymers, (d) amphoteric detergents such as, for example, alkyl-beta-aminopropionates, and 2-alkyl-imidazoline quaternary ammonium salts, and (3) mixtures thereof.

The parenteral formulations will typically contain from about 0.5 to about 25% by weight of the active ingredient in solution. Suitable preservatives and buffers can be used in such formulations. In order to minimize or eliminate irritation at the site of injection, such compositions may contain one or more nonionic surfactants having a hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) of from about 12 to about 17. The quantity of surfactant in such formulations ranges from about 5 to about 15% by weight. Suitable surfactants include polyethylene sorbitan fatty acid esters, such as sorbitan monooleate and the high molecular weight adducts of ethylene oxide with a hydrophobic base, formed by the condensation of propylene oxide with propylene glycol. The parenteral formulations can be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose sealed containers, such as ampoules and vials, and can be stored in a freeze-dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example, water, for injections, immediately prior to use. Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions can be prepared from sterile powders, granules, and tablets of the kind previously described.

The compounds of the present invention may be made into injectable formulations. The requirements for effective pharmaceutical carriers for injectable compositions are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. See Pharmaceutics and Pharmacy Practice, J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa., Banker and Chalmers, eds., pages 238-250 (1982), and ASHP Handbook on Injectable Drugs, Toissel, 4th ed., pages 622-630 (1986).

Additionally, the compounds of the present invention may be made into suppositories by mixing with a variety of bases, such as emulsifying bases or water-soluble bases. Formulations suitable for vaginal administration may be presented as pessaries, tampons, creams, gels, pastes, foams, or spray formulas containing, in addition to the active ingredient, such carriers as are known in the art to be appropriate.

Suitable carriers and their formulations are further described in A. R. Gennaro, ed., Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (19th ed.), Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa. (1995).

The compound of the invention or a composition thereof can potentially be administered as a pharmaceutically acceptable acid-addition, base neutralized or addition salt, formed by reaction with inorganic acids, such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, perchloric acid, nitric acid, thiocyanic acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid, and organic acids such as formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, glycolic acid, lactic acid, pyruvic acid, oxalic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, maleic acid, and fumaric acid, or by reaction with an inorganic base, such as sodium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and organic bases, such as mono-, di-, trialkyl, and aryl amines and substituted ethanolamines. The conversion to a salt is accomplished by treatment of the base compound with at least a stoichiometric amount of an appropriate acid. Typically, the free base is dissolved in an inert organic solvent such as diethyl ether, ethyl acetate, chloroform, ethanol, methanol, and the like, and the acid is added in a similar solvent. The mixture is maintained at a suitable temperature (e.g., between 0° C. and 50° C.). The resulting salt precipitates spontaneously or can be brought out of solution with a less polar solvent.

The neutral forms of the compounds can be regenerated by contacting the salt with a base or acid and isolating the parent compound in the conventional manner. The parent form of the compound differs from the various salt forms in certain physical properties, such as solubility in polar solvents, but otherwise the salts are equivalent to the parent form of the compound for the purposes of the present invention.

The amount or dose of a compound of the invention or a salt thereof, or a composition thereof should be sufficient to affect a therapeutic or prophylactic response in the mammal. The appropriate dose will depend upon several factors. For instance, the dose also will be determined by the existence, nature and extent of any adverse side effects that might accompany the administration of a particular compound or salt. Ultimately, the attending physician will decide the dosage of the compound of the present invention with which to treat each individual patient, taking into consideration a variety of factors, such as age, body weight, general health, diet, sex, compound or salt to be administered, route of administration, and the severity of the condition being treated. By way of example and not intending to limit the invention, the dose of the compound(s) described herein can be about 0.1 mg to about 1 g daily, for example, about 5 mg to about 500 mg daily. Further examples of doses include but are not limited to: 0.1 mg, 0.15 mg, 0.2 mg, 0.25 mg, 0.5 mg, 0.6 mg, 0.75 mg, 1 mg, 1.5 mg, 2 mg, 3 mg, 4 mg, 5 mg, 6 mg, 7 mg, 8 mg, 9 mg, 10 mg, 12 mg, 15 mg, 17 mg, 20 mg, 25 mg, 30 mg, 35 mg, 40 mg, 45 mg, 50 mg, 55 mg, 60 mg, 70 mg, 75 mg, 80 mg, 85 mg, 90 mg, 95 mg, 100 mg, 125 mg, 140 mg, 150 mg, 175 mg, 200 mg, 225 mg, 250 mg, 300 mg, 350 mg, 400 mg, 450 mg, 500 mg, 550 mg, 600 mg, 650 mg, 700 mg, 750 mg, 800 mg, 850 mg, 900 mg, 950 mg, or 1000 mg/kg body weight per day.

The following examples further illustrate the invention but, of course, should not be construed as in any way limiting its scope.

EXAMPLES Osmotic Lysis Experiments and High-Throughput Inhibitor Screen

Laboratory lines of P. falciparum were cultured by standard methods, enriched at the trophozoite stage using the Percoll-sorbitol method, washed, and resuspended at 25° C. and 0.15% hematocrit in 280 mM sorbitol, 20 mM Na-HEPES, 0.1 mg/ml BSA, pH 7.4 with indicated concentrations of inhibitors; uptake of proline, alanine, and phenyl-trimethylammonium chloride (PhTMA-C1) was similarly measured after iso-osmotic replacement for sorbitol. Osmotic swelling and lysis were continuously tracked by recording transmittance of 700-nm light through the cell suspension (DU640 spectrophotometer with Peltier temperature control, Beckman Coulter). Recordings were normalized to 100% osmotic lysis of infected cells at the transmittance plateau. Inhibitor dose responses were calculated by interpolation of the time required to reach fractional lysis thresholds. Dose responses were fitted to the sum of two Langmuir isotherms:

P=a/(1+(x/b))+(1−a)/(1+(x/c))  (Eq. S1)

where P represents the normalized solute permeability in the presence of inhibitor at concentration x, and a, b, and c are constants.

High-throughput screens using this transmittance assay were performed identically with HB3- and Dd2-infected cells at room temperature using a commercial library of 50,000 compounds with >90% purity confirmed by NMR (ChemDiv). Screens were performed in 384-well format with individual wells containing a single compound at 10 μM final concentration. Each microplate had two types of controls. 32 positive control wells received PBS instead of sorbitol; erythrocytes in these wells do not lyse because PSAC has low Na⁺ permeability. 32 negative control wells received sorbitol with DMSO but no test compound. Readings were taken at multiple timepoints to permit estimation of inhibitor affinity in a high-throughput format. The purity and molecular weight of ISPA-28 were confirmed by mass spectrometry.

The activity of each screening compound was calculated based on readings at the 2 h timepoint according to:

% B=100*(A _(cpd) −Ā _(neg))/(Ā _(pos) −Ā _(neg))  (Eq. S2)

where % B is the normalized channel block and A_(cpd) represents the absorbance from a well containing a test compound. A_(neg) and A_(pos) represent the mean absorbances of in-plate negative and positive control wells. % B is a quantitative measure of inhibitor activity.

Inhibitors having significantly differing efficacies against uptake by HB3- and Dd2-infected cells were selected using a weighted difference statistic (WDS), determined from % B values at the 2 h timepoint according to:

WDS=|% B _(HB3)−% B _(Dd2)|/(3*σ_(pos))  (Eq. S3)

where σ_(pos) is the standard deviation of in-plate positive control wells. Isolate-specific inhibitors have WDS≧1.0; larger values correspond to greater differences in efficacy against uptake by the two screened parasite lines. Analysis and data mining of the screens were automated using locally developed code (DIAdem 10.2 and DataFinder, National Instruments).

Electrophysiology

Recordings were obtained with quartz patch pipettes (1-3 MO) and symmetric bath and pipette solutions of 1,000 mM choline chloride, 115 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl₂, 5 mM CaCl₂, 20 mM Na-HEPES, pH 7.4. Where present, ISPA-28 was added to both bath and pipette compartments. Seal resistances were >100 GΩ. Recordings were obtained at imposed membrane potentials of −100 mV, applied as steps from a holding potential of 0 mV, using an Axopatch 200B amplifier (Molecular Devices), low-pass filtered at 5 kHz (8-pole Bessel, Frequency Devices), digitized at 100 kHz, and recorded with Clampex 9.0 software (Molecular Devices).

Single channel open probabilities and gating analyses were determined using locally developed code (DIAdem 8.1, National Instruments). The code for tallying closed channel durations was applied to recordings obtained as voltage steps of 10 s duration to preserve seal integrity. It detects mid-threshold crossings, uses linear interpolation of adjacent sample times, and corrects for a Gaussian filter risetime of 66.4 is as described in detail previously (Desai et al., Nanomedicine, 1: 58-66 (2005)). Durations were tallied into 16 bins/decade, normalized to percent of the total number of events, and displayed on square root plots, where time constants for simple exponentially decaying processes are visible as maxima (Sigworth et al., Biophys. J. 52: 1047-54 (1987)).

Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) Analysis of ISPA-28 Efficacies

A distinct collection of 443 polymorphic microsatellite markers were selected that distinguish the Dd2 and HB3 parental lines (Su et al., Science, 286: 1351-53 (1999)). 5 additional single nucleotide polymorphisms within the chromosome 3 locus were identified by DNA sequencing and were used to genotype progeny clones. This genotype data was used to search for genetic loci associated with ISPA-28 efficacy in the genetic cross progeny by performing QTL analysis with R/qtl software (available at http://www.rqtl.org/) as described (Broman et al., Bioinformatics, 19: 889-90 (2003)). Because P. falciparum asexual stages are haploid, the analysis was analogous to that for recombinant inbred genetic crosses. Significance thresholds at the P=0.05 level were determined by permutation analysis. A secondary scan to search for additional QTL was carried out by controlling for the primary chromosome 3 locus as described in the R/qtl software package.

piggyBac Transposase-Mediated Complementation

Individual candidate genes and a conserved open reading frame within the mapped locus were evaluated using piggyBac transposase-mediated complementation (Balu et al. PNAS, 102: 16391-96 (2005)). Each candidate, along with its presumed endogenous 5′ promoter region (1-2 kb upstream of the start ATG) and 3′UTR (0.5 kb downstream from the stop codon), was PCR amplified from HB3 genomic DNA with primers listed below in Table 1, and inserted into the multiple cloning site of the pXL-BacII-DHFR vector; ligation places the insert adjacent to the human dihydrofolate reductase gene (hDHFR), whose product permits selection by the antifolate WR99210. This integration cassette is flanked by two inverted terminal repeats (ITR) that are recognized bypiggyBac. Transgene-bearing plasmids were cotransfected into Dd2 with pHTH, a helper plasmid that encodes the transposase but lacks a selectable marker. Expression of the transposase facilitates genomic integration of the transgene and hDHFR.

Dye-terminator sequencing of cDNA was used to confirm transgene expression based on detection of known polymorphic sites as doublet peaks in sequence chromatograms. Briefly, cDNA was generated by reverse transcription from total RNA with SuperScriptIII kit (Invitrogen) according to manufacturer instructions. Specific transcripts were then amplified with gene-specific primers. HB3 alleles noted as not expressed were either not detected by this method or not examined due to the lack of polymorphism between Dd2 and HB3.

TABLE 1 Forward Reverse gene primer sequence primer sequence PFC0075C ATACCGTCGACTTGT AATTAGGTACCGTAC CAATTTTTATGTTTG AAATAAATACAATAT CATAAACG TTTTCATAGCAA (SEQ ID NO: 5) (SEQ ID NO: 6) PFC0080C TATCCGTCGACTCTA AATTAGGTACCCTTC TTTACACTCATGAAG ATTGAAAATTTTACA ACAGAGGTAA AGGGTATC (SEQ ID NO: 7) (SEQ ID NO: 8) PFC0085C ATACCGTCGACTATG AATATGGTACCTACA AATGATTGTACTACT CATTGACATAGGGTA TTTGTAAGAAT TCATCATT (SEQ ID NO: 9) (SEQ ID NO: 10) PFC0090W ATACCGTCGACCCTT AATTAGGTACCGTTA TTTACACGTATATTC ACACGAACAATTTTG GGACAATC CAGTATG (SEQ ID NO: 11) (SEQ ID NO: 12) PFC0095C ATACCGTCGACCAAA AATTAGGTACCATGA AAACCGAAATGGCAT AATATGTAATACGTG TTC GGTTAAAAG (SEQ ID NO: 13) (SEQ ID NO: 14) PFC0100C ATACCGTCGACTTCC AATTAGGTACCCGAC ATGTTTAAAGTGAAA ATTATGTTATTTCGG TTAGAAGATAT CGA (SEQ ID NO: 15) (SEQ ID NO: 16) PFC0105W ATACCGTCGACCAGT AATTAGGTACCAGTG ATATATAATCAAATT TTTTAAGGCAATAAT GAGCTTAAAAAG TATATTGTATT (SEQ ID NO: 17) (SEQ ID NO: 18) PFC0110W TCGACCTCGAGCATA ACGTAGGGCCCATGT AAATTGTGTGTTTCA ATAAATGAAAAATGA TTAAAATCAT ATGTGACTCTT (SEQ ID NO: 19) (SEQ ID NO: 20) PFC0115C ATTCAGTCGACAAGA TATTCGGTACCTTTG AAAAGGTAATATTTT TAATATACCTTTATG AGTACACTCAA CGTTGACA (SEQ ID NO: 21) (SEQ ID NO: 22) PFC0120W ATGCAGTCGACATGC TCGATGGGCCCCTTT ACTCATTAATAATTT TCAATTAATTTTATA TAAACCGT TTCTTTTGTTC (SEQ ID NO: 23) (SEQ ID NO: 24) PFC0125W ATACCGTCGACCCTG TATAAGGTACCCAGG ACGATGAATTAATGA TTAATATAGCCAAAA TATCACG TAAATTGAAA (SEQ ID NO: 25) (SEQ ID NO: 26) PFC0126C ATAGAGTCGACGGAT GATTTGGTACCTTTG ATTAGCTGATAAAGC TTTTCATGTCCCATC AGCAGC ATAATTC (SEQ ID NO: 27) (SEQ ID NO: 28) PFC0130C ATACCGTCGACTATT ACATTGGGCCCTTCC CTACTTAAAGATGAA CCTCACATATCAATC TAGCACATATG ATAAAT (SEQ ID NO: 29) (SEQ ID NO: 30) ORF 147k ATACAGTCGACGCAT ACTGAGGGCCCGACA CCTATTCCCATCCTT AGAAGCATTACAGAG TCCT AGCAA (SEQ ID NO: 31) (SEQ ID NO: 32) PFC0135c ATACCGTCGACATTT AATTAGGTACCCAGA TGCCCAAGAATATAA GAAAGAAAAATGTCA AATAATAAGAT ATATAAATAAA (SEQ ID NO: 33) (SEQ ID NO: 34) Allelic Exchange of clag3

Allelic exchange was achieved by single-site homologous recombination of a Dd2 clag3.1 transgene into the HB3 genomic clag3.2. A DNA fragment containing the 3′portion (3219 bp) of clag3.1 and its 3′ UTR (441 bp) was amplified from Dd2 with primers 5′-cataagcggccgcGCCATTCAGACCAAGCAAGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 35) and 5′-ttaaactgcagCTTTTCAATTAATTTTATATTCTTTTGTTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 36). The amplicon was cloned into the pHD22Y plasmid (Fidock et al., PNAS, 94: 10931-36 (1997)) between NotI and PstI sites. The final transfection plasmid (pHD22Y-120w-flag-PG1) was constructed by addition of DNA sequence encoding tetra-cysteines and the FLAG epitope tag (FLNCCPCCMEPGSDYKDDDDK) (SEQ ID NO: 37) in frame before the gene's stop codon by standard site-directed mutagenesis. Homologous recombination into HB3 was detected by PCR five months after transfection. Recombinant parasites were enriched by sorbitol treatment with ISPA-28 and subjected to limiting dilution to yield the limiting dilution clone HB3^(3rec).

Primers used for PCR verification of homologous recombination into the HB3 genome included those in Table 2:

TABLE 2 primer sequence p1 GTGGAATTGTGAGCGGATAACA (SEQ ID NO: 38) p2 TCATCGTCCTTATAGTCGGATCC (SEQ ID NO: 39) p3 ATGTTTTGTAATTTATGGGATAGCGA (SEQ ID NO: 40) p4 GTTGAGTACGCACTAATATGTCAATTTG (SEQ ID NO: 41) p5 AACCATAACATTATCATATATGTTAATTACAC (SEQ ID NO: 42)

Southern Blot Hybridization

Genomic DNA was extracted using Wizard Genomic DNA extraction kit (Promega), digested with indicated restriction enzymes, resolved on a 0.7% agarose gel at 55 V for 18 hrs, and blotted onto positively charged Nylon membrane (Roche). A DNA probe complementary to hdhfr was prepared using primers (5′-ATTTCCAGAGAATGACCACAAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 43) and 5′-TTAAGATGGCCTGGGTGATTC-3′) (SEQ ID NO: 44) and labeled with digoxigenin-dUTP. After prehybridization with DIG-Easy Hyb (Roche), the labeled probe was added and hybridized overnight at 39° C. The blot was washed with 0.1×SSC/0.5% SDS at 53° C., and blocked. Probe binding was then detected with anti-digoxigenin-AP Fab fragments at a dilution of 1:10,000 and CDP-Star substrate (Roche).

Quantification of Gene Expression by Real-Time PCR

Two-step real-time PCR was used to quantify expression of clag genes. Primers specific for each of the 5 clag genes were designed based on polymorphisms identified through DNA sequencing. Genomic DNA PCR using possible permutations of forward and reverse primers produced amplicons with only matched primer pairs, confirming specificity. Primers used included those in Table 3:

TABLE 3 gene Forward Reverse (parasite line) primer sequence primer sequence clag2 (all) CTCTTACTACTTATT CCAGGCGTAGGTCCT ATCTATCTCTCA TTAC (SEQ ID NO: 45) (SEQ ID NO: 46) clag3.1 ACCCATAACTACATA GACAAGTTCCAGAAG (Dd2, 7C12,  TTTTCTAGTAATG CATCCT 7C20, CH361) (SEQ ID NO: 47) (SEQ ID NO: 48) clag3.1 (HB3, ACCCATAACTACATA AGATTTAGTTACACT HB3^(3rec)) TTTTCTAGTAATG TGAAGAATTAGTATT (SEQ ID NO: 49) (SEQ ID NO: 50) clag3.2 ACCCATAACTACATA GATTTATAACTAGGA (Dd2, 7C12, TTTTCTAGTAATG GCACTACATTTA 7C20, CH361) (SEQ ID NO: 51) (SEQ ID NO: 52) clag3.2 ACCCATAACTACATA TTATAACCATTAGGA (HB3) TTTTCTAGTAATG GCACTACTTTC (SEQ ID NO: 53) (SEQ ID NO: 54) chimeric ACCCATAACTACATA GACAAGTTCCAGAAG clag3recom TTTTCTAGTAATG CATCCT transgene (SEQ ID NO: 55) (SEQ ID NO: 56) (HB3^(3rec)) clag8 (all) GTTACTACAACATTC AATGAAAATATAAAA CTGATTCAG ATGCTGGGGGAT (SEQ ID NO: 57) (SEQ ID NO: 58) clag9 TACCATTAGTGTTTT CCAAAATATGGCCAA (Dd2, 7C12, ATACACTTAAGG GTACTTGC 7C20, CH361) (SEQ ID NO: 59) (SEQ ID NO: 60)

Total RNA was harvested from synchronous schizont-stage cultures with Trizol reagent (Invitrogen) following the manufacturer's protocol. Residual genomic DNA contaminant was removed by TURBO-DNA-free kit (Ambion). Reverse transcription was performed using SuperScriptIII kit (Invitrogen) with oligo-dT as primer. Negative control reactions that omitted reverse transcriptase were used to exclude samples contaminated with genomic DNA. Real-time PCR was performed with QuantiTect SyBr Green PCR kit (Qiagen) and the above clag gene-specific primer pairs. Amplification kinetics were followed in the iCycler iQ multicolor real-time PCR system (Bio-Rad). Serial dilution of parasite genomic DNA was used to construct the standard curve for each primer pair. rhopH2, rhopH3, and PF_70073 were used as loading controls. The presented data are normalized to the total clag3 transcript abundance.

In Vitro Selections of Parasites with Altered ISPA Efficacy

PSAC-mediated osmotic lysis of infected cells in unbuffered 280 mM sorbitol solution containing ISPA compounds was used to select for parasites with altered inhibitor efficacy. This strategy is based on rescue of parasites whose channels are blocked by addition of ISPA; it is analogous to the use of sorbitol in synchronization of parasite culture (Lambros et al., J. Parasitol., 65:418-20 (1979)). Optimal selection conditions were determined from lysis kinetics and dose responses. Synchronizations were performed on consecutive days using 30 min incubations of cultures at room temperature with 5 μM ISPA-28 or 4 μM ISPA-43. The marked difference in ISPA-28 affinity between channels associated with the two clag3 genes yielded rapid selection, typically within 4-6 synchronizations. Additional synchronizations were required in reverse selections using ISPA-43, consistent with a relatively modest difference in affinity.

Polyclonal Antibody Production

DNA sequence encoding the C-terminal 141 amino acids of the Dd2 clag3.1 product was cloned into pET-15b vector (Novagen) for over-expression in E. coli. Standard site-directed mutagenesis was used to introduce a C-terminal FLAG epitope tag yielding the final plasmid (pet 15b-120w-4B) which encodes

(SEQ ID NO: 61) NH₂-MGSSHHHHHHSSGGTKKYGYLGEVIAARLSPKDKIMNYVHE TNEDIMSNLRRYDMENAFKNKMSTYVDDFAFFDDCGKNEQFLNE RCDYCPVIEEVEETQLFTTTGDKNTNKTTEIKKQTSTYIDTEKM NEADSADSDDEKDSDTPDDELMISRFH DYKDDDDK-CO₂H (clag3.1 product italicized; hexa-histidine and FLAG tags underlined). Recombinant protein was produced in BL21 CodonPlus (DE3) RIL cell line (Agilent Technologies) after transformation with pET-15b-120w-4B and induction with 0.5 mM IPTG for 3 hours. The recombinant protein was harvested by sonication in the presence of protease inhibitors, bound to Ni-NTA Superflow beads (Qiagen), eluted with imidazole under optimized conditions, and dialyzed. Purity and size were confirmed on coomassie-stained SDS-PAGE gels prior to submission for standard mouse immunizations by Precision Antibody (Columbia, Md.), an OLAW certified facility. Antibody titers were >1:100,000 by ELISA.

Protease Susceptibility Studies

Percoll-enriched synchronous trophozoite-infected cells were washed and treated with 1-2 mg/mL pronase E from Streptomyces griseus (Sigma Aldrich) at 5% hematocrit in PBS supplemented with 0.6 mM CaCl₂ and 1 mM MgCl₂ for 1 h at 37° C. Reactions were terminated by addition of 20 volumes of ice cold PBS with protease inhibitors (1 mM PMSF, 2 μg/mL pepstatin, and 2 μg/mL leupeptin) and exhaustive washing. Effectiveness of the protease treatment and the block by protease inhibitors was evaluated by examining PSAC activity with sorbitol uptake measurements. Protease accessibility to erythrocyte cytosol was examined by measuring hemoglobin band intensity in coomassie-stained SDS-PAGE gels of total cell lysate. Band intensity was quantified with ImageJsoftware (http://rsbweb.nih.gov/) and revealed no detectable hemoglobin degradation (mean of 99±2% relative to untreated controls, n=7 separate trials).

Membrane Fractionation

Infected cells, with or without prior protease treatment, were hemolysed in 40 volumes of lysis buffer (7.5 mM Na₂HPO₄, 1 mM EDTA, pH 7.5) with protease inhibitors and ultracentrifuged (70,000×g, 4° C., 1 h). The supernatant was collected as the ‘soluble’ fraction before resuspending the pellet in 100 mM Na₂CO₃, pH 11 at 4° C. for 30 min before centrifugation (70,000×g). The “carbonate extract” supernatant was neutralized with 1/10 volume 1 M HCl. The final pellet was washed with lysis buffer before solubilization as the “membrane” fraction in 2% SDS.

Immunofluorescence Confocal Microscopy

Synchronous parasite cultures were washed and used to make thin smears on glass slides. The cells were air dried prior to fixation in 100% methanol (ice-cold for merozoites and RT for trophozoites) for 5 min. After incubation in 10% Goat Serum Blocking Solution (Invitrogen) with 0.1% Triton X-100, primary antibody against the clag3 recombinant protein and secondary antibody (Alexa Fluor 488 goat anti-mouse IgG, Invitrogen) were applied in the same buffer at 1:50 and 1:500 dilution, respectively with thorough washing between antibodies. Nuclei were stained with Hoechst 33342 before mounting in Fluoromount-G (SouthernBiotech). Dual color fluorescence images were taken on a Leica SP2 confocal microscope under a 100× oil immersion objective with serial 405 nm and 488 nm excitations. Images were processed in Imaris 6.0 (Bitplane AG) and uniformly deconvolved using Huygens Essential 3.1 (Scientific Volume Imaging BV).

Immunoblots

Protein samples were denatured and reduced in NuPAGE® LDS Sample Buffer (Invitrogen) with 100 mM DTT and run on NuPAGE® Novex 4-12% Bis-Tris gels in MES Buffer (Invitrogen), and transferred to nitrocellulose membrane. After blocking (3% fat-free milk in 150 mM NaCl, 20 mM TrisHCl, pH 7.4 with 0.1% Tween20), anti-recombinant clag3 product or anti-FLAG (Cell Signalling Technology), was applied at 1:3000 dilution in blocking buffer. After washing, binding was detected with HRP-conjugated secondary antibodies (Pierce) at 1:3000 dilution and chemiluminescent substrate (Immobilon, Millipore or SuperSignal West Pico, Pierce).

Computational Analyses

Phylogenetic analysis of clag products and the more distantly related RONs was conducted using an approximately-maximum-likelihood method implemented in the FastTree 2.1 program under default parameters (Price et al., Mol. Biol. Evol., 26: 1641-50 (2009)). Transmembrane domains were predicted using the TMHMM and Phobius programs (Krogh et al., J. Mol. Biol., 305: 657-80 (2001); Kall et al., Bioinformatics, 21 Suppl. 1: i251-57 (2005)). Improved confidence in transmembrane domain prediction was achieved by inputting multiple alignments of group 2 clag products from several plasmodial species in the PolyPhobius mode.

Example 1

This example demonstrates the activity of compounds according to formulas (1a) and (2a) below against PSAC. This example also demonstrates the in vitro growth inhibitory activity of compounds (1a) and (2a) in nutrient-rich RPMI and PSAC-limiting medium (PLM). The compounds of formulas (1a) and (2a) are in accordance with an embodiment of the invention.

The concentration of a chemical inhibitor required to produce 50% block of PSAC-mediated solute uptake, K_(0.5) for PSAC block (Table 4), was measured as described previously (Biophysical J. 84:116-23, 2003). The chemical inhibitors included:

Briefly, P. falciparum trophozoites were obtained by in vitro culture in human erythrocytes, enriched by density gradient centrifugation, and used in a continuous light-scattering osmotic lysis assay in sorbitol lysis solution (in mM: 280 sorbitol, 20 Na-HEPES, 0.1 mg/ml BSA, pH 7.4). In this assay, increases in transmittance (% T, measured at 700 nm) correlated directly to lysis of infected RBCs and were plotted in arbitrary units. Uninfected RBCs lacked PSAC activity and had undetectably low sorbitol permeability. Uptake of other nutrient solutes and patch-clamp methods confirmed that this transmittance assay provides a quantitative measure of PSAC inhibition by compounds (1a) and (2a). The PSAC inhibitors of compounds (1a) and (2a) represent a novel strategy for intervention against malaria parasites because currently approved antimalarial drugs (artemisinin, mefloquine, and chloroquine) did not inhibit PSAC activity (Table 4).

In vitro parasite killing by PSAC inhibitors was quantified using a SYBR Green I-based fluorescence assay for parasite nucleic acid in 96-well format. Parasite cultures were synchronized by incubation in 5% D-sorbitol before seeding at 1% parasitemia and 2% hematocrit in standard media for parasite cultivation (RPMI 1640 supplemented with 25 mM HEPES, 50 mg/L hypoxanthine, and 10% regular serum) or in PSAC-limiting medium (PLM, a novel medium based on the RPMI 1640 formulation but with reduced concentrations of isoleucine, glutamine, and hypoxanthine, three nutrients whose uptake by infected cells is primarily via PSAC). While RPMI 1640 contained supraphysiological concentrations of these nutrients, the values in PLM were closer to those measured in plasma from healthy human donors.

Cultures were maintained for 3 days at 37° C. in 5% O₂, 5% CO₂ without media change. After this incubation, Sybr Green I was added in 20 mM Tris, 10 mM EDTA, 0.016% saponin, 1.6% triton X100. Subsequent fluorescence measurements (excitation/emission at 485/528 nm) permitted quantification of parasite growth because the fluorescence of Sybr Green 1 was a measure of parasite nucleic acid content. Table 4 shows the concentration of each PSAC inhibitor (compounds of formulas (1a) or (2a)) or control antimalarial drug (artemisinin, mefloquine, or chloroquine) required to produce a 50% reduction in parasite survival in RPMI 1640 (RPMI IC₅₀) or PLM (PLM IC₅₀). Improved killing by PSAC inhibitors (compounds of formulas (1a) and (2a)) upon testing in PLM indicated that the PSAC inhibitors may have a novel mechanism of parasite killing. These data supported a role of PSAC in parasite nutrient acquisition because nutrient limitation improved PSAC inhibitor efficacy, but did not significantly alter killing by artemisinin, mefloquine, or chloroquine (see Ratio of IC₅₀ (RPMI/PLM)).

TABLE 4 K_(0.5) for PSAC Ratio block, RPMI PLM IC₅₀, (RPMI/ Structure MW clogP nM IC₅₀, μM μM PLM) Compound of 431 3.5 3 1.5 0.0023 800 formula (1a) Compound of 486 5.3 10 >30 0.3 >100 formula (2a) Artemisinin 282 2.7 inactive 0.018 0.026 0.66 Mefloquine 378 3.7 inactive 0.022 0.033 0.66 Chloroquine 319 5.1 inactive 0.22 0.34 0.67

Example 2

This example demonstrates the identification of isolate-specific inhibitors, which effectively inhibit PSAC activity associated with a specific parasite line. This example also demonstrates that an inhibitor in accordance with the invention interacts directly with PSAC.

A search for small molecule inhibitors with differing efficacies against channels induced by divergent parasite lines was performed. Such inhibitors presumably bind to one or more variable sites on the channel, which may result either from polymorphisms in a parasite channel gene or from differing activation of human channels. To find these inhibitors, a transmittance-based assay that tracks osmotic lysis of infected cells in sorbitol, a sugar alcohol with increased permeability after infection was used (Wagner et al., Biophys. J., 84: 116-23 (2003)). This assay had been adapted to 384-well format and used to find high affinity PSAC inhibitors (Pillai et al., Mol. Pharmacol., 77: 724-33 (2010)). Here, this format was used to screen a library of compounds against erythrocytes infected with the HB3 and Dd2 P. falciparum lines. To maximize detection of hits, a low stringency was chosen in the screens by using library compounds at a high concentration (10 μM) and by reading each microplate at multiple timepoints (Pillai et al., Mol. Pharmacol., 77: 724-33 (2010)). 8% of compounds met or exceeded the threshold of 50% normalized block at 2 h [% B=100*(A_(cpd)−Ā_(neg))/(Ā_(pos)−Ā_(neg))], consistent with a low screening stringency. A weighted difference statistic (WDS) was defined that normalized measured differences in efficacy against HB3 and Dd2 channels to the standard deviation of positive control wells in each microplate [WDS=|% B_(HB3)−% B_(Dd2)|/(3*σ_(pos))]. 86% of all compounds produced indistinguishable effects on the two parasite lines (WDS≦1.0). Thus, most inhibitor binding sites were conserved.

Nevertheless, a small number of compounds produced significantly differing activities in the two screens. One such inhibitor, named ISPA-28 (for isolate-specific PSAC antagonist based on studies described below, Formula A below), was reproducibly more effective at inhibiting sorbitol uptake by Dd2- than HB3-infected cells. Secondary studies with ISPA-28 revealed an ˜800-fold difference in half-maximal affinities (K_(0.5) values of 56±5 nM vs. 43±2 μM for Dd2 and HB3, respectively; P<10⁻¹⁰).

ISPA-28 effects on uptake of the amino acids alanine and proline as well as the organic cation phenyl-trimethylammonium (PhTMA), solutes with known increases in permeability after infection (Ginsburg et al., Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 14: 313-22 (1985); Bokhari et al., J. Membr. Biol. 226: 27-34 (2008)), were also examined. Each solute's permeability was inhibited with dose responses matching those for sorbitol. Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that these data provide evidence for a single shared transport mechanism used by these diverse solutes.

22 different laboratory parasite lines were next tested and significant transport inhibition was found with only Dd2 and W2. Because Dd2 was generated by prolonged drug selections starting with W2 (Wellems et al., Nature, 345: 253-55 (1990)), their channels' distinctive ISPA-28 affiities suggested a stable heritable element in the parasite genome.

To explore the mechanism of ISPA-28 block, patch-clamp of infected erythrocytes was performed. Using the whole-cell configuration, similar currents on HB3- and Dd2-infected cells in experiments without known inhibitors were observed. These currents exhibited inward rectification. Previous studies determined that they were carried primarily by anions with a permeability rank order of SCN⁻>I⁻>Br⁻>Cl⁻ (Desai et al., Nature, 406: 1001-05 (2000)). 10 μM ISPA-28 reduced these currents, but had a significantly greater effect on Dd2-infected cells. In the cell-attached configuration with 1.1 M Cl⁻ as the charge carrier, ion channel activity characteristic of PSAC was detected on both lines (˜20 pS slope conductance with fast flickering gating, (Alkhalil et al., Blood, 104: 4279-86 (2004)); without inhibitor, channels from the two lines were indistinguishable. However, recordings with 10 μM ISPA-28 revealed a marked difference as Dd2 channels were near-fully inhibited whereas HB3 channels were largely unaffected. Thus, this compound's effects on single PSAC recordings parallel those on uptake of sorbitol and other organic solutes.

Closed durations from extended recordings were analyzed and it was determined that ISPA-28 imposed a distinct population of long block events, but only in recordings on Dd2-infected cells. At the same time, intrinsic channel closings, which occur in the absence of inhibitor, were conserved on both parasites and were not affected by ISPA-28.

Example 3

This example demonstrates the inheritance of ISPA-28 efficacy in a Dd2×HB3 genetic cross and that piggyback-mediated complementations implicate clag 3.1 and clag 3.2 in PSAC activity.

ISPA-28 efficacy against PSAC activity on red blood cells infected with recombinant progeny clones from the Dd2×HB3 genetic cross (Wellems et al., Nature, 345: 253-255 (1990)) was next examined. For each clone, sorbitol uptake was examined in the absence and presence of 7 μM ISPA-28, a concentration that optimally distinguishes the parental channel phenotypes, and quantified inhibition [% B=100*(A_(cpd)−Ā_(neg))/(Ā_(pos)−Ā_(neg))]. Although a few of the 34 independent progeny clones exhibited intermediate channel inhibition, most resembled one or the other parent. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis was used to search for associations between ISPA-28 efficacy and inheritance of available microsatellite markers. A primary scan identified a single significant peak having a logarithm of odds (LOD) score of 12.6 at the proximal end of chromosome 3. A secondary scan for residual effects did not find additional peaks reaching statistical significance.

The mapped locus contained 42 predicted genes. Although none had homology to classical ion channels from other organisms, many were conserved in other plasmodia, as expected for the responsible gene(s) from conservation of PSAC activity in malaria parasites (Lisk et al., Eukaryot. Cell, 4: 2153-59 (2005)). The mapped region was enriched in genes encoding proteins destined for export to host cytosol (P<10⁻⁴ by simulation), as typical of apicomplexan subtelomeric regions. Some of the encoded proteins had one or more predicted transmembrane domains as usually involved in channel pore formation, but this criterion may miss some transport proteins. The PEXEL motif, which directs parasite proteins to the host cell (Marti et al., Science, 306: 1930-33 (2004)), was present in some genes, but this module is not universally required for export (Spielman et al., Trends Parasitol. 26: 6-10 (2010)). Thus, computational analyses suggested several candidates, but could not specifically implicate any as ion channel components.

A DNA transfection approach was chosen and piggyBac transposase was chosen to complement Dd2 parasites with the HB3 allele of individual candidate genes (Balu et al., PNAS, 102: 16391-96 (2005)). With this method, successfully transfected parasites will carry both parental alleles and therefore be merodiploid for candidate genes. Nevertheless, the marked difference in ISPA-28 efficacy between the parental lines would be expected to produce a detectable change in transport phenotype upon complementation with the responsible gene. The high efficiency of random integration conferred by piggyBac permits rapid examination of many genes (Balu et al., BMC Microbiol., 9: 83 (2009)).

Fourteen genes were cloned with their endogenous 5′ and 3′ UTR regions from the HB3 parent into the pXL-BacII-DHFR plasmid; a 15^(th) construct containing a conserved but not annotated open reading frame (ORF 147 kb) was also prepared. Each was transfected individually along with a helper plasmid encoding the transposase into Dd2 parasites. Selection for hDHFR expression yielded parasites that stably carried both Dd2 and HB3 alleles for each candidate. Because an altered channel phenotype presumably requires expression of the HB3 allele, reverse transcriptase PCR was used to amplify polymorphic regions of each gene and the amplicons were sequenced to determine if both parental alleles were transcribed; this approach confirmed expression of 12 candidates. ISPA-28 dose responses for inhibition of sorbitol uptake by erythrocytes infected with each transfectant were performed. Two transfectants, expressing HB3 alleles for PFC0110w (clag 3.2) and PFC0120w (clag 3.1), produced significant changes in ISPA-28 efficacy with K_(0.5) values between those of Dd2 and HB3, as expected for cells carrying channels from both parental lines (P=0.01 and P<10⁻⁷ in comparison to Dd2, respectively). Limiting dilution cloning of the PFC0120w transfectant yielded a clone, Dd2-pB 120w, which had undergone at least one integration event; its ISPA-28 K_(0.5) was indistinguishable from the transfection pool. For both genes, quantitative analyses suggested relatively low level expression of the HB3 allele because the transfectant K_(0.5) values (95±8 and 140±12 nM) were closer to those of Dd2 than of HB3. Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that expression levels of the two parental alleles may be influenced by the genomic environment of the integration site, relative promoter efficiencies, and a gene silencing mechanism examined below.

Example 4

This example confirms a role for clag 3.1. and clag 3.2 in PSAC activity. This example also demonstrates that clag3 gene silencing and switched expression determine inhibitor affinity.

To examine the unexpected possibility that clag3 products contribute to PSAC activity, an allelic exchange strategy was used to transfer potent ISPA-28 block from the Dd2 line to HB3 parasites. Because Dd2 parasites express clag3.1 but not clag3.2 (Kaneko et al., Mol. Biochem. Parasitol., 143: 20-28 (2005)), their clag3.1 gene presumably encodes high ISPA-28 affinity. Therefore, a transfection plasmid was constructed carrying a 3.2 kb fragment from the 3′ end of the Dd2 clag3.1 allele, an in-frame C-terminal FLAG tag followed by a stop codon, and the fragment gene's 3′ untranslated region (pHD22Y-120w-flag-PG1). Because this plasmid carries only a gene fragment and lacks a leader sequence to drive expression, an altered transport phenotype requires recombination into the parasite genome. HB3 was transfected with this plasmid and PCR was used to screen for integration into each of the five endogenous clag genes. This approach detected recombination into the HB3 clag3.2 gene; limiting dilution cloning yielded HB3^(3rec), a clone carrying a single site integration event without residual episomal plasmid. DNA sequencing indicated recombination between single nucleotide polymorphisms at 3718 and 4011 bp from the HB3 clag3.2 start codon. This recombination site corresponded to successful transfer of downstream polymorphisms including a recognized hypervariable region at 4266-4415 bp; contamination with other laboratory parasite lines was excluded by fingerprinting.

PSAC activity on HB3^(3rec) exhibited a marked increase in ISPA-28 efficacy (FIG. 1), further supporting a role for clag3 genes in sorbitol and nutrient uptake. Although this allelic exchange strategy yielded a gene replacement in contrast to the complementations achieved with piggyBac, the channel's ISPA-28 affinity was again intermediate between those of HB3 and Dd2 (FIG. 2). Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that several mechanisms may contribute to the quantitatively incomplete transfer of inhibitor affinity. First, two or more polymorphic sites on the protein might contribute to ISPA-28 binding. If some of these sites are upstream from the recombination event, the resulting chimeric protein may have functional properties distinct from those of either parental line. Second, the channel may contain additional unidentified subunits; here, transfection to replace each contributing HB3 gene with Dd2 alleles might be required to match the ISPA-28 affinity of Dd2. Finally, in addition to the chimeric clag3.2_(HB3)-3.1_(Dd2) gene produced by transfection, HB3^(3rec) also carries the clag3.1 gene endogenous to HB3 parasites. Expression of both paralogs could also produce an intermediate ISPA-28 affinity.

To explore these possibilities, a cell-attached patch-clamp was performed on HB3^(3rec)-infected cells. Individual channel molecules exhibiting ISPA-28 potencies matching those of each parental line were identified. These recordings excluded scenarios that require a homogenous population of channels.

In addition to the complex behavior of HB3^(3rec), it was noticed that certain progeny from the genetic cross had lower ISPA-28 affinity than Dd2 despite inheriting the mapped chromosome 3 locus fully from the Dd2 parent. Because subtelomeric multigene families in P. falciparum are susceptible to recombination and frequent gene conversion events (Freitas-Junior et al., Nature, 407: 1018-22 (2000)), both clag3 paralogs and neighboring genomic DNA from 7C20 and Dd2 were sequenced but no DNA-level differences were found. Epigenetic mechanisms that may influence ISPA-28 affinity were therefore considered. clag3.1 and clag3.2 have been reported to undergo mutually exclusive expression (Cortes et al., PLoS Pathog., 3: e107 (2007)). Monoallelic expression and switching, also documented for other gene families in P. falciparum (Chen et al. Nature, 394: 392-95 (1998); Lavazec et al., Mol. Microbiol., 64: 1621-34 (2007)), allow individual parasites to express a single member of a multigene family. Daughter parasites resulting from asexual reproduction continue exclusive expression of the same gene through incompletely understood epigenetic mechanisms (Howitt et al., Mol. Microbiol., 73: 1171-85 (2009)). After a few generations, some daughters may switch to expression of another member of the gene family, affording diversity that contributes to immune evasion (Sherf et al., Annu. Rev. Microbiol., 62: 445-70 (2008)).

Reverse transcriptase PCR was performed and it was found that Dd2 expresses clag3.1 almost exclusively while the three discordant progeny express clag3.2 at measurable levels, suggesting epigenetic regulation. Selective pressure was therefore applied to progeny cultures with osmotic lysis in sorbitol solutions containing ISPA-28. Inclusion of ISPA-28 preferentially spares infected cells whose channels have high inhibitor affinity: these cells incur less sorbitol uptake and do not lyse. These selections, applied on multiple consecutive days, yielded marked reductions in parasitemia. Surviving parasites exhibited improved ISPA-28 affinity quantitatively matching that of the Dd2 parent. Identical selections applied to HB3 and three progeny inheriting its chromosome 3 locus did not change ISPA-28 affinity, excluding effects of the selections on unrelated genomic sites.

Real time qPCR using primers specific for each of the 5 clag genes revealed that selection with sorbitol and ISPA-28 reproducibly increased clag3.1 expression while decreasing that of clag3.2 in progeny inheriting the Dd2 locus. Selections applied to the parental HB3 line were without effect, consistent with its unchanged inhibitor affinity. These selections did not alter relative expression of other paralogs (clag2, clag8, and clag9).

Selections were also applied to HB3^(3rec), which carries a chimeric clag3.2_(HB3)-3.1_(Dd2) transgene and the clag3.1 gene native to HB3. In contrast to the lack of effect on the isogenic HB3 line, these synchronizations increased the transfectant's ISPA-28 affinity to a K_(0.5) of 51±9 nM, matching that of Dd2 channels. This change in channel phenotype correlated with a near exclusive expression of the transgene, confirming that expression of HB3 clag3.1 by a subset of cells accounts for the intermediate ISPA-28 affinity. These findings also delimit the determinants of ISPA-28 binding to polymorphic sites within the Dd2 clag3.1 gene fragment transferred to HB3^(3rec).

Without being bound to a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that expression switching in P. falciparum multigene families occurs over several generations and should lead to a drift in population phenotype. After selection of the chimeric gene in HB3^(3rec), continued in vitro propagation yielded a gradual decay in ISPA-28 affinity that correlated with decreasing transgene expression. As with other multigene families (Lavazec et al., Mol. Microbiol., 64: 1621-34 (2007)), several factors may affect the steady-state ISPA-28 affinity and relative expression levels for the two clag3 genes upon continued culture without selective pressure.

Example 5

This example demonstrates reverse selection with ISPA-43 and a clag3 mutation in a leupeptin-resistant PSAC mutant.

A PSAC inhibitor with reversed specificity for the two Dd2 clag3 products was next sought. To this end, hits from the high-throughput screen of Example 2 were surveyed using the progeny clone 7C20 before and after selection for clag3.1 expression. This secondary screen identified ISPA-43 as a PSAC inhibitor with an allele specificity opposite that of ISPA-28 (Formula B below (K_(0.5) of 32 and 3.9 μM for channels associated with clag3.1 and clag3.2 genes from Dd2, respectively).

A stable parasite mutant with altered PSAC selectivity, gating, and pharmacology was recently generated by in vitro selection of HB3 with leupeptin (Lisk et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 52: 2346-54 (2008)). Clag3 genes were sequenced from this mutant, HB3-leuR1, and identified a point mutation within its clag3.2 gene that changes the conserved A1210 to a threonine, consistent with a central role of clag3 genes in solute uptake. HB3-leuR1 silences its unmodified clag3.1 and preferentially expresses the mutated clag3.2 (expression ratio of 19.2±1.5), as required for a direct effect on PSAC behavior. Because this mutation is within a predicted transmembrane domain, it may directly account for the observed changes in channel gating and selectivity.

Sorbitol synchronizations with 4 μM ISPA-43 were then applied to the clag3.1-expressing 7C20 culture and achieved robust reverse selection: the surviving parasites exhibited both low ISPA-28 affinity and a reversed clag3 expression profile. Thus, inhibitors can be used in purifying selections of either clag3 gene. Because ISPA-28 affinity can be reduced either through drift without selective pressure or by selection for the alternate paralog with an inhibitor having reversed specificity, these studies alleviate concerns about indirect effects of exposure to sorbitol or individual inhibitors.

A stable parasite mutant with altered PSAC selectivity, gating, and pharmacology was recently generated by in vitro selection of HB3 with leupeptin (Lisk et al., Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 52: 2346-54 (2008)). Clag3 genes from this mutant, HB3-leuR1, were sequenced and a point mutation was identified within its clag3.2 gene that changed the conserved A1210 to a threonine, consistent with a central role of clag3 genes in solute uptake. HB3-leuR1 silenced its unmodified clag3.1 and preferentially expressed the mutated clag3.2 (expression ratio of 19.2±1.5), as required for a direct effect on PSAC behavior. Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that because this mutation is within a predicted transmembrane domain, it may directly account for the observed changes in channel gating and selectivity.

Example 6

This example demonstrates that clag3 products are exposed at the host erythrocyte surface.

To directly contribute to PSAC activity, it is believed that at least some of the clag3 product would associate with the host membrane, presumably as an integral membrane protein. Polyclonal antibodies were therefore raised to a carboxy-terminal recombinant fragment conserved between the two clag3 products. Confocal microscopy with this antibody confirmed reports localizing these proteins to the host cytosol and possibly the erythrocyte membrane as well as within rhoptries of invasive merozoites (Vincensini et al., Mol. Biochem. Parasitol., 160: 81-89 (2008)). To obtain more conclusive evidence, immunoblotting was used to examine susceptibility of these proteins to extracellular protease. Without protease treatment, a single ˜160 kDa band was detected in whole-cell lysates, consistent with the expected size of clag3 products. Treatment with pronase E under conditions designed to prevent digestion of intracellular proteins reduced the amount of the full-length protein and revealed a 35 kDa hydrolysis fragment. In contrast, a monoclonal antibody against KAHRP, a parasite protein that interacts with the host membrane cytoskeleton but is not exposed (Kilejian et al., Mol. Biochem. Parasitol., 44: 175-81 (1991)), confirmed that intracellular proteins are resistant to hydrolysis under these conditions. As reported for another protease (Baumeister et al., Mol. Microbiol., 60: 493-04 (2006)), pronase E treatment significantly reduced PSAC-mediated sorbitol uptake; this effect was sensitive to protease inhibitors, suggesting that proteolysis at one or more exposed sites interferes with transport.

Ultracentrifugation of infected cell lysates revealed that the clag3 product is fully membrane-associated; a fraction could however be liberated by treatment with Na₂CO₃, which strips membranes of peripheral proteins (Fujiki et al., J. Cell Biol., 93: 97-102 (1982)). Because this fraction was protease insensitive, it reflects an intracellular pool of clag3 product loosely associated with membranes. The C-terminal hydrolysis fragment was present only in the carbonate-resistant insoluble fraction, indicating an integral membrane protein.

Because the polyclonal antibodies might cross-react with clag products from other chromosomes, protease sensitivity was next examined in HB3^(3rec), whose chimeric clag3 transgene encodes a C-terminal FLAG tag. Anti-FLAG antibody recognized a single integral membrane protein in HB3^(3rec) and no proteins from the parental HB3 line, indicating specificity for the recombinant gene product. Treatment with pronase E prior to cell lysis and fractionation revealed a hydrolysis fragment indistinguishable from that seen with the antibody raised against the native protein's C-terminus.

The following procedures were followed for the experiments described in Examples 7-10:

Parasite Cultivation, Design of PLM, and Growth Inhibition Studies

Asexual stage P. falciparum laboratory lines were propagated by standard methods in RPMI 1640 supplemented with 25 mM HEPES, 31 mM NaHCO₃, 0.37 mM hypoxanthine, 10 μg/mL gentamicin, and 10% pooled human serum. PLM is based on this standard medium and was designed after surveying parasite growth in media lacking individual constituents with known PSAC permeability: hypoxanthine, calcium panthothenate, and the amino acids Cys, Glu, Gln, Ile, Met, Pro, and Tyr (Saliba et al., J. Biol. Chem., 273: 10190-10195 (1998)). PLM contained reduced concentrations of isoleucine (11.4 μM), glutamine (102 μM), and hypoxanthine (3.01 μM); human serum was exhaustively dialyzed against distilled H₂0 prior to supplementation in this medium.

Growth inhibition experiments were quantified using a SYBR Green I-based fluorescence assay for parasite nucleic acid in 96-well format, as described previously (Pillai et al., Mol. Pharmacol., 77: 724-733 (2010)). Ring-stage synchronized cultures were seeded at 1% parasitemia and 2% hematocrit in standard medium or PLM and maintained for 72 h at 37° C. in 5% O₂, 5% CO₂ without media change. Cultures were then lysed in 20 mM Tris, 10 mM EDTA, 0.016% saponin, and 1.6% triton X100, pH 7.5 with SYBR Green I at twice the manufacture's recommended concentration (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). After a 45 min incubation, parasite DNA content was quantified by measuring fluorescence (excitation/emission wavelengths, 485/528 nm). For each inhibitor concentration, the mean of triplicate measurements was calculated after subtraction of background fluorescence from matched cultures killed by 20 μM chloroquine. Growth inhibition studies with the HB3^(3rec) parasite were performed after transport-based selection with ISPA-28 to achieve expression of the chimeric clag3 gene generated by allelic exchange transfection.

Transport Inhibition Assays

Inhibitor affinity for PSAC block was determined using a quantitative transmittance assay based on osmotic lysis of infected cells in sorbitol (Wagner et al., Biophys. J., 84: 116-123 (2003)). Parasite cultures were enriched at the trophozoite stage using the Percoll-sorbitol method, washed, and resuspended at 37° C. and 0.15% hematocrit in 280 mM sorbitol, 20 mM Na-HEPES, 0.1 mg/ml BSA, pH 7.4 with indicated concentrations of inhibitors. PSAC-mediated sorbitol uptake produces osmotic lysis, which was continuously tracked by measuring transmittance of 700 nm light through the cell suspension (DU640 spectrophotometer with Peltier temperature control, Beckman Coulter). Inhibitor dose responses were calculated from the time required to reach fractional lysis thresholds. ISPA-28 dose responses were fitted to the sum of two Langmuir isotherms (Eq/S1). Other inhibitors had dose responses that are adequately fitted by a single Langmuir isotherm.

To examine possible inhibitor metabolism in parasite culture, Dd2 parasites were cultivated in standard media with 40 μM ISPA-28 at 37° C. for 72 h. After centrifugation, the culture supernatant was used as a source of ISPA-28 for comparison to freshly-prepared compound in transport inhibition studies.

QTL Analysis

We sought genetic loci associated with ISPA-28 growth inhibitory efficacy in the Dd2×HB3 genetic cross (Wellems et al., Nature, 345: 253-255 (1990)) using 448 previously selected polymorphic markers that distinguish the Dd2 and HB3 parental lines (Nguitragool et al., Cell, 145: 665-677 (2011)). QTL analysis was performed using R/qtl software (freely available at http://www.rqtl.org/) as described (Broman et al., Bioinformatics, 19: 889-890 (2003)) and conditions suitable for the haploid asexual parasite. A P=0.5 significance threshold was estimated with permutation analysis. Growth inhibition data at 0.3 and 10 μM ISPA-28 identified the same locus reported with 3 μM ISPA-28. Additional QTL were sought with secondary scans by controlling for the clag3 locus.

Quantitative RT-PCR

Two-step real-time PCR was used to quantify clag gene expression using allele-specific primers developed previously (Nguitragool et al., Cell, 145: 665-677 (2011)). RNA was harvested from schizont-stage cultures with TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen), treated with DNase to remove residual genomic DNA contaminant, and used for reverse transcription (SuperScriptIII and oligo-dT priming, Invitrogen). Negative control reactions without reverse transcriptase confirmed there was no genomic DNA contamination. Real-time PCR was performed with QuantiTect SyBr Green PCR kit (Qiagen), the iCycler iQ multicolor real-time PCR system (Bio-Rad), and clag gene-specific primers. Serial dilution of parasite genomic DNA was used to construct the standard curve for each primer pair. PF7_0073 was used as a loading control as it is constitutively expressed. Transcript abundance for each clag gene was then determined from amplification kinetics.

PCR Studies for Clag3 Recombination

The clag3 locus of Dd2-PLM28 was characterized with genomic DNA and allele-specific primers: 3.1f(5′-GTGCAATATATCAAAGTGTACATGCA-3′) (SEQ ID NO: 68), 3.1r (5′-AAGAAAATAAATGCAAAACAAGTTAGA-3′) (SEQ ID NO: 69), 3.2f(5′-GTTGAGTACGCACTAATATGTCAATTTG-3′) (SEQ ID NO: 41), and 3.2r (5′-AACCATAACATTATCATATATGTTAATTACAC-3′) (SEQ ID NO: 42). cDNA prepared from schizontstage cultures was also used with these primers to examine expression of both native and chimeric clag3 genes.

Southern Blot

A clag3-specific probe was prepared by PCR amplification from Dd2 genomic DNA using 5′-ATTTACAAACAAAGAAGCTCAAGAGGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 70) and 5′-TTTTCTATATCTTCATTTTCTTTAATTGTTC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 71) in the presence of Digoxygenin (DIG)-dUTP (Roche). Probe specificity was confirmed by blotting against full-length PCR amplicons of the five clag genes generated from Dd2 genomic DNA with primers.

Genomic DNA was digested with indicated restriction enzymes (New England BioLabs), subjected to electrophoresis in 0.7% agarose, acid depurinated, transferred and crosslinked to Nylon membranes. The blot was then hybridized overnight at 39° C. with the above DIG-labeled probe in DIG Easy Hyb (Roche), and washed with low and high stringency buffers (2×SSC, 0.1% SDS, 23° C. followed by 1×SSC, 0.5% SDS, 50° C.) prior to DIG immunodetection according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Mammalian Cytotoxicity

Cytotoxicity of PSAC inhibitors was measured with human HeLa cells (ATCC# CLL-2) in 96-well plates at 4000 cells/well. Cultures were incubated with each inhibitor at 37° C. for 72 h in Minimal Essential Medium (Gibco/Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum. Cell viability was quantified using the vital stain MTS [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethonyphenol)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium, inner salt], as described (Marshall et al., Growth Regul., 5: 69-84 (1995)). The reported CC₅₀ value is the concentration of an inhibitor that reduces conversion of MTS to formazan by 50%.

Example 7

This example demonstrates that ISPA-28 kills Dd2 cells in vitro when nutrient availability in the media is reduced.

ISPA-28 blocks PSAC on Dd2-infected cells with high affinity and has only weak activity against channels from HB3 parasites (K_(0.5) of 56±5 nM and 43±2 μM, respectively) (Nguitragool et al., Cell, 145: 665-677 (2011)). If channel activity serves a role in the growth of the intracellular parasite, this small molecule inhibitor would be expected to interfere with propagation of Dd2 cultures but spare those of HB3. The initial in vitro parasite growth studies revealed an insignificant difference with both parasite lines exhibiting sustained growth in RPMI-based media despite high ISPA-28 concentrations (IC₅₀ values >40 μM each, P=0.35 for a difference).

It was determined that ISPA-28 efficacy against Dd2 channels is not compromised by metabolism of the inhibitor under in vitro culture conditions. ISPA-28 is also not significantly adsorbed by serum protein or lipids, a phenomenon known to reduce activity of some PSAC inhibitors and many therapeutics (Matsuhisa et al., Chem. Engineering J., 34: B21-B27 (1987)). Thus, ISPA-28 does not to inhibit the growth of Dd2 parasites under standard in vitro culture conditions.

One possibility is that channel activity is involved in the survival of malaria parasites, but that the low level transport remaining in the presence of inhibitor adequately meets parasite demands under standard in vitro culture conditions. Consistent with this, sustained channel-mediated uptake in Dd2-infected erythrocytes even with high ISPA-28 concentrations was observed. Significantly less residual uptake was observed with compound (31), a broad spectrum PSAC inhibitor with a comparable inhibitory K_(0.5) value for Dd2 channels (Pillai et al., Mol. Pharmacol., 77: 724-733 (2010)). (P<10⁻⁴ for comparison of these inhibitors at 10 pIM). The unexpected difference in residual channel activity with these inhibitors may account for their differing efficacies against in vitro parasite growth (IC₅₀ values of ˜50 μM and 4.7 μM, respectively; Table 5).

TABLE 5 RPMI PLM Transport growth growth Compound inhibition IC₅₀, IC₅₀, IC₅₀ Name Structure K_(0.5), nM μM μM ratio furosemide

2700 >200 21 >9.5 dantrolene

1200 42 3.8 18 (24)

87 23 0.27 114 (25)

33 15 0.17 86 (280)

6 18 0.23 270 (31)

84 4.7 0.41 15 (3) (TP-52)

25 7.3 0.19 38 Cpd 80

44 12.5 0.17 130 Cpd 50

81 >30 2.0 >15 ISG-21

2.6 1.5 0.002 800 chloroquine inactive 0.22 0.34 0.67 mefloquine inactive 0.022 0.033 0.66 artemisinin inactive 0.018 0.026 0.66

Without being bound to a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that incomplete block with high ISPA-28 concentrations despite a low K_(0.5) value for Dd2 channels suggests a complex mechanism of inhibition. While dantrolene and furosemide dose responses are adequately fitted by the equation that assumes a 1:1 stoichiometry for inhibitor and channel molecules, the ISPA-28 dose response was not well fit. An improved fit was obtained with a two-component Langmuir equation. Because this two-component equation is compatible with several possible mechanisms, the ISPA-28 stoichiometry and precise mode of channel block has not yet been determined.

Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that if PSAC functions in nutrient acquisition for the intracellular parasite (Desai et al., Nature, 406: 1001-1005 (2000)), then the incomplete inhibition by ISPA-28 may permit adequate nutrient uptake. Many nutrients are present at supraphysiological0 concentrations in the general purpose RPMI 1640 medium (Sato et al., Curr. Protoc. Cell Biol., 1: Unit 1.2 (2001)). The large inward concentration gradient for nutrients in this medium could sustain parasite nutrient uptake despite near-complete channel block. Nutrients with PSAC-mediated uptake were surveyed and isoleucine, glutamine, and hypoxanthine were selected because their isolated removal from media adversely affected parasite cultures. Isoleucine and glutamine dose responses revealed that both could be reduced by >90% with negligible effects on propagation of either HB3 or Dd2, consistent with nutrient excess in standard media. Threshold concentrations of these amino acids as well as of hypoxanthine, a purine with high PSAC permeability, were selected (Gero et al., Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 309A: 169-172 (1991); Asahi et al., Parasitology, 113: 19-23 (1996)). To reduce the inward gradient for nutrient uptake, a PSAC-limiting medium (PLM) was prepared that uses these threshold values while following the RPMI 1640 formulation for all other solutes. Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that the reduced nutrient content of the PLM medium more closely mimics the nutrient availability under in vivo physiological conditions as compared to RPMI 1640 medium. Both Dd2 and HB3 parasites could be propagated continuously in PLM (>2 weeks), though at somewhat reduced rates. It was observed that cultures with low parasitemias grew well in PLM, but that rates decreased with higher parasite burden, consistent with nutrient limitation and competition between infected cells in culture.

In contrast to the poor ISPA-28 efficacy against parasite growth in the standard RPMI 1640 medium, studies using PLM revealed potent killing of Dd2 parasites and continued weak activity against HB3 (I_(C50) values of 0.66±0.20 μM and 52±19 μM, respectively; P<10-4; FIG. 3A). Although there is a nonlinear relationship between nutrient uptake and parasite growth, these I_(C50) values are in reasonable agreement with the transport K_(0.5) values for PSAC block by ISPA-28.

Example 8

This example demonstrates the ISPA-28 growth inhibition phenotype in the progeny of a Dd2×HB3 genetic cross.

Linkage analysis using an independent transport phenotype and this genetic cross have recently implicated two clag3 genes from parasite chromosome 3 in PSAC-mediated solute uptake at the host membrane (Nguitragool et al., Cell, 145: 665-677 (2011)). Here, the growth inhibition studies revealed a broad range of ISPA-28 efficacies for progeny clones, with many progeny resembling one or the other parent. Because HB3 and some progeny had high growth IC₅₀ values that could not be precisely estimated, linkage analysis was performed using growth inhibition at 3 μM ISPA-28, a concentration that optimally distinguishes the parental phenotypes (FIG. 3B). This analysis identified a primary association of ISPA-28 growth inhibition with the clag3 locus, providing evidence for a role of this locus in inhibition of both solute transport and parasite killing by ISPA-28. Additional contributing peaks were sought by removing the effects of the clag3 locus; this approach did not identify other statistically significant genomic loci.

The mapped locus is at the proximal end of the parasite chromosome 3 and contains approximately 40 genes. To determine whether clag3 genes are responsible for ISPA-28 mediated killing, growth inhibition studies were performed with HB3^(3rec), a parasite clone generated by allelic exchange transfection of HB3 to replace the 3′ end of the native clag3.2 gene with the corresponding fragment from the clag3.1 of Dd2. When this chimeric gene is expressed, HB3^(3rec) exhibits high affinity inhibition by ISPA-28 (K_(0.5) of 51±9 nM, P=0.88 for no difference from Dd2) (Nguitragool et al., Cell, 145: 665-677 (2011)). Here, HB3^(3rec) was used in growth inhibition studies with PLM and it was found that it is sensitive to ISPA-28 at levels matching Dd2. Because HB3^(3rec) is otherwise isogenic with the resistant HB3 line, this finding indicates that ISPA-28 kills parasites primarily via action on the clag3 product and associated channel activity. Furthermore, the requirement for nutrient restriction to detect ISPA-28 mediated killing supports a role of PSAC in parasite nutrient acquisition.

Example 9

This example demonstrates the selection of resistant clag3 alleles though ISPA-28 mediated killing.

Most laboratory parasite lines carry two copies of clag3 genes, both on the Watson strand of the chromosome 3 locus. Epigenetic mechanisms control expression of these genes with individual parasites preferentially expressing one of the two alleles. Upon asexual replication, most daughter parasites continue to express the same allele, but a few undergo switching and express the other allele. In vivo, gene switching is used by malaria parasites and other pathogens to evade host immune responses against crucial surface-exposed antigens.

ISPA-28 was previously used to examine clag3 gene switching (Nguitragool et al., Cell, 145: 665-677 (2011)). This compound is a potent and specific inhibitor of channels associated with expression of the Dd2 clag3.1 gene; it has little or no activity against channels formed by expression of Dd2 clag3.2 or of either clag3 in unrelated parasite lines. The ISPA-28 binding site was delimited to the C-terminus of the clag3.1 product; a short hypervariable domain within this region is exposed at the erythrocyte surface and may define the ISPA-28 binding pocket. ISPA-28 was used to select for cells expressing the Dd2 clag3.1 allele through osmotic lysis in solutions containing ISPA-28 and sorbitol, a sugar alcohol with high PSAC permeability. Sorbitol selects for this allele because osmotic lysis eliminates infected cells whose channels are not blocked by ISPA-28. Of note, these selections were performed on three progeny clones inheriting the Dd2 clag3 locus, but not on Dd2 as this parental line already expresses clag3.1 exclusively. These selections were without effect on HB3 or progeny clones that inherit its clag3 locus because neither of the two HB3 alleles encodes high affinity ISPA-28 inhibition.

Here, it was hypothesized that in vitro growth inhibition by ISPA-28 may also select for cells expressing individual clag3 genes. Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that while sorbitol-induced osmotic lysis selects for cells that express the ISPA-28 sensitive clag3.1, growth inhibition in PLM should favor cells expressing the resistant clag3.2 allele because only parasites whose channels are not blocked by ISPA-28 will meet their nutrient demands. The progeny clone 7C20, which carries the Dd2 clag3 locus and expresses both alleles in unselected cultures (FIGS. 4A-4B), was examined. After selection with osmotic lysis in sorbitol and ISPA-28, surviving parasites had PSAC inhibitor affinity matching the Dd2 parent and predominantly expressed the clag3.1 allele. The culture was then propagated in PLM containing 5 M ISPA-28 for a total of 10 days; microscopic examination of smears during this treatment revealed near complete sterilization of the culture. Transport studies on parasites surviving this second treatment revealed a marked reduction in ISPA-28 affinity, indicating that in vitro propagation with PSAC inhibitors can be used to select for altered channel phenotypes. RT-PCR confirmed strong negative selection against clag3.1 to yield a parasite population that preferentially expresses clag3.2. There were also modest changes in expression of clag genes on other chromosomes, suggesting that these paralogs may also contribute to PSAC activity. The opposing effects of ISPA-28 on in vitro growth inhibition and on susceptibility to transport-induced osmotic lysis permit purifying selections of either clag3 allele and reveal a strict correlation with channel phenotype.

Surprisingly, the Dd2 parental line retains exclusive expression of clag3.1 in unselected cultures despite being isogenic with 7C20 at the clag3 locus (Nguitragool et al., Cell, 145: 665-677 (2011)). To explore possible mechanisms, it was sought to select Dd2 parasites expressing the alternate clag3.2 allele. Transport selection was tried using osmotic lysis with ISPA-43, a structurally distinct PSAC inhibitor with 10-fold higher affinity for channels formed by expression of the Dd2 clag3.2 than of clag3.1. Although this approach has been successfully used to select for 7C20 parasites expressing clag3.2 (Nguitragool et al., Cell, 145: 665-677 (2011), it was insufficient to affect channel phenotype in Dd2 parasites despite repeated selections over 4 months.

Negative selection was attempted with growth inhibition in PLM containing ISPA-28. After 2 cycles of drug pressure with 5 M ISPA-28 for a total of 17 days, resistant cells were identified and characterized after limiting dilution to obtain the clone Dd2-PLM28.

Consistent with killing primarily via PSAC inhibition, transport studies using this resistant clone revealed a marked reduction in inhibitor affinity (FIG. 5A). Although the ISPA-28 dose response quantitatively matched that of 7C20 parasites after identical PLM-based selection (upper solid line, FIG. 5A), full length clag3.2 transcript was still undetectable, excluding the simple prediction of gene switching. Spontaneous recombination between the two clag3 genes was considered, and a chimeric clag3 transcript was identified using a forward clag3.1 primer and a reverse clag3.2 primer; PCR confirmed that this chimera is present in the selected parasite's genome but absent from the original Dd2 line. Southern blotting with a clag3 specific probe detected three discrete bands in the selected clone but only the expected two bands in unselected Dd2 parasites, implicating a recombination event to produce three clag3 genes in Dd2-PLM28. The size of the new band, ˜16 kb, is consistent with homologous recombination between clag3.1 and clag3.2 in Dd2-PLM28. DNA sequencing indicated that the chimeric gene derives its 5′ untranslated region and the first ˜70% of the gene from clag3.1. After a crossover between single nucleotide polymorphisms at 3680 and 3965 bp from the start codon, the gene carries the 3′ end of clag3.2. Thus, the chimeric gene is driven by the clag3.1 promoter, but encodes a protein with the C-terminal variable domain of clag3.2. This altered C-terminus accounts for the reduced ISPA-28 efficacy against nutrient uptake and, hence, survival of this clone in the selection. Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that the proposed homologous recombination also produces a parasite having a single clag3 gene and high ISPA-28 affinity, but that recombinant is not expected to survive growth inhibition selection in PLM with ISPA-28.

Quantitative RT-PCR was then used to examine transcription of clag genes in Dd2-PLM28 and found that the chimeric gene is preferentially expressed (8.9±1.3 fold greater than clag3.1, P<0.002). Transport-based selection in sorbitol with ISPA-28 was used to examine whether Dd2-PLM28 can undergo expression switching. This second selection yielded parasites that express the native clag3.1 almost exclusively (PLM-rev, FIG. 5B). Transport studies revealed an ISPA-28 dose response identical to that of the original Dd2 line, as expected. Thus, the new chimeric clag3 gene can undergo epigenetic silencing and switching with clag3.1. DNA sequencing of the gene's promoter region did not reveal any mutations relative to that of 7C20.

Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that recombination between the two clag3 genes occurs with relative ease, consistent with reports of frequent recombination events in the parasite's subtelomeric regions (Freitas-Junior et al., Nature, 407: 1018-22 (2000)). It is also believed that such recombination events may serve to increase diversity in PSAC phenotypes, apparent here as affording survival of a parasite with three clag3 genes under selective pressure.

Example 10

This example demonstrates the comparison of growth inhibitory effects of PSAC inhibitors in PLM and standard media.

Furosemide and dantrolene are known non-specific inhibitors with relatively low PSAC affinity. These compounds are also adsorbed by serum, but are approved therapeutics in other human diseases. They are only weakly effective against parasite growth in standard medium, but have significantly improved activity in PLM. Eight high affinity PSAC inhibitors from 5 distinct scaffolds recently identified by high-throughput screening were also tested (Pillai et al., Mol. PharmacoL, 77: 724-733 (2010)). Each exhibited significantly improved potency when nutrient concentrations are reduced, strengthening the evidence for the channel's role in nutrient acquisition. The extent of improved efficacy was variable, but many compounds exhibited a >100-fold improvement in parasite killing upon nutrient restriction (IC₅₀ ratio, Table 5). Factors such as the stoichiometry of inhibitor:channel interaction and resultant changes in the concentration dependence of channel block, compound stability in culture, and adsorption by serum may influence this ratio.

To explore therapeutic potential, HeLa cell cytotoxicity was examined in vitro. Several potent PSAC inhibitors were found to be nontoxic and highly specific for parasite killing (Table 6).

TABLE 6 PSAC HeLa cell specificity (HeLa CC₅₀/ Inhibitor CC₅₀, μM parasite PLM IC₅₀) (24) 30 110 (280)  >100 >430 (31) >100 >240  (3) >100 >530 Cpd 50 >100 >50 ISG-21 86 43,000

Finally, in vitro growth inhibition experiments were performed with chloroquine, mefloquine, and artemisinin, approved antimalarial drugs that work at unrelated targets within the intracellular parasite. These drugs do not inhibit PSAC-mediated solute uptake. In contrast to improved killing by PSAC inhibitors, these drugs were modestly less effective in PLM than in RPMI (Table 5), excluding nonspecific effects of modified in vitro growth conditions. Without being bound by a particular theory or mechanism, it is believed that the robust improvement in parasite killing for PSAC inhibitors upon nutrient restriction is in contrast to the effect on existing antimalarial drugs and, therefore, implicates a novel mechanism of action. Because both isolate-specific and broad spectrum PSAC inhibitors exhibit improved efficacy in PLM, these studies provide experimental evidence for a role of PSAC in nutrient uptake by the intracellular parasite.

All references, including publications, patent applications, and patents, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each reference were individually and specifically indicated to be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entirety herein.

The use of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in the context of describing the invention (especially in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. The terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and “containing” are to be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., meaning “including, but not limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range, unless otherwise indicated herein, and each separate value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the invention and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the invention unless otherwise claimed. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice of the invention.

Preferred embodiments of this invention are described herein, including the best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention. Variations of those preferred embodiments may become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading the foregoing description. The inventors expect skilled artisans to employ such variations as appropriate, and the inventors intend for the invention to be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, this invention includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. 

1. A method of treating or preventing malaria in an animal comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of formula (I) to the animal: Q-Y—R¹—R²  (I), wherein: Q is selected from the group consisting of a dioxo heterocyclyl ring fused to an aryl group, a heterocyclic amido group linked to a heterocyclic group, alkyl, a heterocyclic group fused to a heterocyclic amido group, arylamino carbonyl, amino, heterocyclic amido, and heterocyclic amino group, each of which, other than amino, is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aryl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl; Y is a bond, S, SO₂, or amido; R¹ is divalent group selected from the group consisting of a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, aryl, a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom linked to an alkylamino group, benzo fused heterocyclyl, heterocyclyl fused to an iminotetrahydropyrimidino group, and heterocyclyl fused to a heterocyclic amido group, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl; R² is selected from the group consisting of arylalkenyl, heterocyclyl carbonylamino, heterocyclyl alkylamino, tetrahydroquinolinyl alkenyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl alkyl, indolylalkenyl, dihydroindolylalkenyl, aryl, aryloxyalkyl, arylalkyl, diazolyl, and quinolinylalkenyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 2. A method of inhibiting a plasmodial surface anion channel of a parasite in an animal comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of formula (I) to the animal: Q-Y—R¹—R²  (I), wherein: Q is selected from the group consisting of a dioxo heterocyclyl ring fused to an aryl group, a heterocyclic amido group linked to a heterocyclic group, alkyl, a heterocyclic group fused to a heterocyclic amido group, arylamino carbonyl, amino, heterocyclic amido, and heterocyclic amino group, each of which, other than amino, is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aryl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl; Y is a bond, S, SO₂, or amido; R¹ is divalent group selected from the group consisting of a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, aryl, a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom linked to an alkylamino group, benzo fused heterocyclyl, heterocyclyl fused to an iminotetrahydropyrimidino group, and heterocyclyl fused to a heterocyclic amido group, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl; R² is selected from the group consisting of arylalkenyl, heterocyclyl carbonylamino, heterocyclyl alkylamino, tetrahydroquinolinyl alkenyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl alkyl, indolylalkenyl, dihydroindolylalkenyl, aryl, aryloxyalkyl, arylalkyl, diazolyl, and quinolinylalkenyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein Q is selected from the group consisting of dioxotetrahydroquinoxalinyl, pyridazinyl heterocyclyl, alkyl, heterocyclyl pyridazinyl, and arylaminocarbonylalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl.
 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein R¹ is piperidinyl, piperazinyl, piperidinylalkylamino, benzothiazolyl, thiozolyl fused to an imino tetrahydropyrimidino group, thiazolylfused to a pyridazone, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl.
 5. The method according to claim 1, wherein R² is selected from the group consisting of alkyl arylalkenyl, thiopheneylcarbonylamino, tetrahydro quinolinyl alkenyl, tetrahydro isoquinolinylalkyl, alkoxyaryl, aryl, aryloxyalkyl, arylalkyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl.
 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein Y is SO₂.
 7. The method according to claim 6, wherein Q is selected from the group consisting of:

methyl, and isobutyl.
 8. The method according to claim 6, wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of:


9. The method according to claim 6, wherein R² is selected from the group consisting of:


10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the compound is:


11. The method according to claim 1, wherein Y is S.
 12. The method according to claim 11, wherein Q is selected from the group consisting of:


13. The method according to claim 11, wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of


14. The method according to claim 11, wherein R² is selected from the group consisting of:


15. (canceled)
 16. The method according to claim 1, wherein Y is a bond.
 17. (canceled)
 18. The method according to claim 1, wherein Y is amido.
 19. The method according to claim 18, wherein Q is heterocyclic amido, R₁ is a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom, and R₂ is diazolyl.
 20. (canceled)
 21. The method according to claim 1, further comprising administering at least one other antimalarial compound to the animal.
 22. The method according to claim 21, wherein the at least one other antimalarial compound is selected from the group consisting of: a) a compound of formula II:

wherein R¹⁰⁰ is hydrogen or alkyl and R²⁰⁰ is arylalkyl, optionally substituted on the aryl with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; or R²⁰⁰ is a group of formula (III):

wherein n=0 to 6; or R¹⁰⁰ and R²⁰⁰ together with the N to which they are attached form a heterocycle of formula IV:

wherein X is N or CH; and Y₁ is aryl, alkylaryl, dialkylaryl, arylalkyl, alkoxyaryl, or heterocyclic, optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; and R³-R¹⁰ are hydrogen or alkyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; (b) a compound of formula V:

wherein Z is a group having one or more 4-7 membered rings, wherein at least one of the rings has at least one heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N; and when two or more 4-7 membered rings are present, the rings may be fused or unfused; wherein the rings are optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; R^(a) is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkoxy; L is a bond, alkyl, alkoxy, (CH₂)_(r), or (CH₂O)_(s), wherein r and s are independently 1 to 6; Q₁ is a heterocyclic group, an aryl group, or an heterocyclyl aryl group, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; and when L is alkyl or alkoxy, Q₁ is absent; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; and (c) a compound of formula VI:

wherein R¹¹ and R¹² are independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, or aryl which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, halo, hydroxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; R¹³-R¹⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of alkyl, halo, alkoxy, hydroxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 23. The method according to claim 1, wherein the animal is a human.
 24. The method according to claim 1, wherein the compound inhibits growth of P. falciparum Dd2. 25-28. (canceled)
 29. A pharmaceutical composition comprising: i) a compound of formula (I): Q-Y—R¹—R²  (I), wherein: Q is selected from the group consisting of a dioxo heterocyclyl ring fused to an aryl group, a heterocyclic amido group linked to a heterocyclic group, alkyl, a heterocyclic group fused to a heterocyclic amido group, arylamino carbonyl, amino, heterocyclic amido, and heterocyclic amino group, each of which, other than amino, is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aryl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl; Y is a bond, S, SO₂, or amido; R¹ is divalent group selected from the group consisting of a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom, piperidinyl, piperazinyl, aryl, a heterocyclic ring having at least one nitrogen atom linked to an alkylamino group, benzo fused heterocyclyl, heterocyclyl fused to an iminotetrahydropyrimidino group, and heterocyclyl fused to a heterocyclic amido group, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl; R² is selected from the group consisting of arylalkenyl, heterocyclyl carbonylamino, heterocyclyl alkylamino, tetrahydroquinolinyl alkenyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl alkyl, indolylalkenyl, dihydroindolylalkenyl, aryl, aryloxyalkyl, arylalkyl, diazolyl, and quinolinylalkenyl, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, mercapto, alkoxy, alkylthio, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, cyanoalkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, dialkylamino, carboxy, carboxyalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, ureido, and formyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; and ii) at least one other antimalarial compound.
 30. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 29, wherein the at least one other antimalarial compound is selected from the group consisting of: a) a compound of formula II:

wherein R¹⁰⁰ is hydrogen or alkyl and R²⁰⁰ is arylalkyl, optionally substituted on the aryl with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; or R²⁰⁰ is a group of formula (III):

wherein n=0 to 6; or R¹⁰⁰ and R²⁰⁰ together with the N to which they are attached form a heterocycle of formula IV:

wherein X is N or CH; and Y₁ is aryl, alkylaryl, dialkylaryl, arylalkyl, alkoxyaryl, or heterocyclic, optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxyl, nitro, cyano, amino, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; and R³-R¹⁰ are hydrogen or alkyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; (b) a compound of formula V:

wherein Z is a group having one or more 4-7 membered rings, wherein at least one of the rings has at least one heteroatom selected from the group consisting of O, S, and N; and when two or more 4-7 membered rings are present, the rings may be fused or unfused; wherein the rings are optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; R^(a) is hydrogen, alkyl, or alkoxy; L is a bond, alkyl, alkoxy, (CH₂)_(r), or (CH₂O)_(s), wherein r and s are independently 1 to 6; Q₁ is a heterocyclic group, an aryl group, or an heterocyclyl aryl group, each of which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of halo, hydroxy, alkoxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkyl, aminoalkyl, alkylamino, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; and when L is alkyl or alkoxy, Q₁ is absent; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; and (c) a compound of formula VI:

wherein R¹¹ and R¹² are independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, or aryl which is optionally substituted with one or more substituents selected from the group consisting of alkyl, alkoxy, halo, hydroxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; R¹³-R¹⁵ are independently selected from the group consisting of alkyl, halo, alkoxy, hydroxy, nitro, cyano, amino, alkylamino, aminoalkyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkoxycarbonyl, aminocarbonyl, and formyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 31. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 30, comprising a compound of formula I and one or more of

32-41. (canceled) 